Table 1 Maternal, paternal, pregnancy, offspring, and postnatal characteristics across the trajectory groups (n = 546)
Consistently healthy n = 59 | Mixed pattern n = 390 | Consistently unhealthy n = 97 | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Maternal characteristics | ||||
Age at recruitment (years) | 31.8 ± 4.8 | 31.4 ± 4.9 | 30.1 ± 5.8 | 0.05 |
Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 21.9 ± 3.6 | 22.6 ± 4.4 | 23.2 ± 4.4 | 0.22 |
Family history of cardiovascular disease | 14 (24) | 115 (29) | 32 (33) | 0.47 |
Ethnicity | < 0.001 | |||
Chinese | 39 (66) | 264 (68) | 31 (32) | |
Malay | 1 (1.7) | 84 (22) | 53 (55) | |
Indian | 19 (32) | 42 (11) | 13 (13) | |
Educational attainment | < 0.001 | |||
Secondary and below | 7 (12) | 98 (25) | 36 (37) | |
Post-secondary | 15 (26) | 138 (35) | 40 (41) | |
University and above | 36 (62) | 153 (39) | 21 (22) | |
Household monthly income (S$) | 0.01 | |||
≤ 1999 | 7 (12) | 41 (11) | 17 (18) | |
2000–5999 | 23 (40) | 199 (54) | 58 (62) | |
≥ 6000 | 27 (47) | 131 (35) | 19 (20) | |
Paternal characteristics | ||||
Age at recruitment (years) | 34.4 ± 5.0 | 34.7 ± 5.8 | 34.0 ± 6.6 | 0.62 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.7 ± 3.5 | 25.7 ± 4.5 | 26.4 ± 4.7 | 0.08 |
Educational attainment | < 0.001 | |||
Secondary and below | 4 (8.0) | 69 (22) | 24 (29) | |
Post-secondary | 14 (28) | 104 (32) | 39 (47) | |
University and above | 32 (64) | 148 (46) | 20 (24) | |
Pregnancy characteristics | ||||
Diet quality (HEI-SGP) | 59.8 ± 13.5 | 53.5 ± 13.6 | 48.4 ± 13.2 | < 0.001 |
MVPA ≥ 150 min/week | 11 (19) | 27 (7.1) | 8 (8.4) | 0.02 |
Television viewing time < 2 h/day | 38 (64) | 182 (47) | 33 (35) | 0.001 |
Good sleep quality (PSQI < 5) | 29 (74) | 144 (59) | 16 (31) | 0.001 |
Tobacco exposure (plasma cotinine > LOD) | 3 (5.7) | 52 (15) | 28 (31) | 0.001 |
Gestational diabetes mellitus | 14 (26) | 71 (19) | 11 (12) | 0.09 |
Depressive symptoms (EPDS ≥ 15) | 2 (3.4) | 22 (5.8) | 10 (11) | 0.14 |
Anxiety symptoms (STAI ≥ 42) | 6 (10) | 83 (22) | 27 (30) | 0.02 |
Rate of gestational weight gain | 0.10 | |||
Inadequate | 5 (9.4) | 56 (16) | 9 (11) | |
Normal | 29 (55) | 124 (36) | 30 (37) | |
Excessive | 19 (36) | 166 (48) | 42 (52) | |
Offspring characteristics | ||||
Boy | 33 (56) | 199 (51) | 53 (55) | 0.69 |
Firstborn | 25 (42) | 187 (48) | 33 (34) | 0.04 |
Preterm birth | 4 (6.8) | 20 (5.1) | 7 (7.2) | 0.60 |
Size for gestational age | 0.68 | |||
Appropriate for gestational age | 44 (75) | 275 (71) | 69 (71) | |
Small for gestational age | 5 (8.5) | 55 (14) | 10 (10) | |
Large for gestational age | 10 (17) | 60 (15) | 18 (19) | |
Postnatal nutrition | ||||
Duration of any breastfeeding | 0.002 | |||
< 1 month | 4 (7.1) | 68 (18) | 27 (29) | |
1–5 months | 20 (36) | 148 (39) | 40 (43) | |
≥ 6 months | 32 (57) | 163 (43) | 27 (29) | |
Early complementary feeding (≤ 4 months) | 7 (14) | 58 (17) | 21 (26) | 0.16 |