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Table 4 Summary of relationships between GIS-measured environmental factors and AST

From: GIS measured environmental correlates of active school transport: A systematic review of 14 studies

 

Individual

Trip

School

Environmental variables

-ve

+ve

Null

-ve

+ve

Null

-ve

+ve

Null

Distance

         

Distance to school

[17]a,b [18]j [21, 23]c,d [26–28]a,b,h,i [29]d,m

 

[18]k [29]c

[25]c,d

     

Distance to central business district

     

[25]c,d,e,f

   

Density

Residential density

 

[16, 18]k [23]d,e

[18]j [23]c,e,f, [23]d,f [26, 29]c,d

    

[20]

 

Residential index

  

[18]j,k

      

Employment density

  

[18]j,k [29]c,d

[24]c

[25]c,e,h [25]d,e,f,n

[24]d [25]c,f,n [25]c,d,e,f,o

   

Building density

 

[29]d,l

[27]a,b,e [29]c

      

School density

    

[24]d

[24]c

   

Density of school- or work-related trips

    

[25]c,d,e,f

    

Vehicle density

 

[29]d,l

[29]c

      

Diversity

Mixed land use

 

[23]c,d,f [29]c,l

[16, 18]j,k [23]c,d,e [27]a,b,e,g [29]d

      

Commercial floor area ratio

     

[19]a,b

   

Design-connectivity-intersections

Intersection density

 

[17]a [29]c,g,m

[16, 17]b [18]j,k [23]c,d,e,f [27]a,b,e [29]c,d,e [29]d,g

  

[25]c,d,e,f

  

[20]

Percent of each way intersections

  

[18]j,k

      

Connected node ratio

[27]a,b,e

        

Cul-de-sac density

[17]a

 

[17]b

      

Design-connectivity-route directness

     

Route directness

[28]i [27]a,b

 

[17]a,b [28]h

      

Design-connectivity-streets

Block/road density

 

[27]a,b,e

[29]c,d

 

[25]d,e

[19]a,b [25]c,d,f [25]c,e

   

Average block size

[29]c,m [29]d,l

 

[18]j,k

      

Length of motorway

  

[26]

      

Length of main street

  

[26]

      

Length of side street

  

[26]

      

Proportion of primary roads

  

[27]a,b,e

      

Vehicle lane width

  

[25]c,d

      

Design-Pedestrian-sidewalk and bike lanes

Sidewalk length

  

[23]c,d,e,f

      

Sidewalk width

  

[29]c,d

  

[19]a,b

   

Sidewalk density

 

[29]c,m

[27]a,b,e [29]d

 

[19]a

[19]b

   

Bike lane density

     

[19]a,b

   

Street spatial design

Rail roads crossing

  

[17]a,b,g

      

Motorway crossing

  

[26]g

      

Major roads crossing

  

[17]a,b,g

      

Main street crossing

[26]g

        

Side street crossing

  

[26]g

      

Busy road crossing

[28]g,h,i

        

Busy/main road along the route

[27]a,b

 

[28]h,i

      

Main road outside child's home

  

[27]a,b,e

      

Proportion of primary roads

  

[27]a,b,g

      

Walkability index

Individual walkability index

 

[16]

       

Neighbourhood walkability index

 

[16]

       

Effective walkable area

  

[27]a,b,e

      

Topography

Greenery

 

[23]c,e

[23]c,f [23]d,e,f [29]c,d

  

[19]a,b

   

Steep incline

[28]h [29]d,m

 

[26, 28]i [29]c

      

Geographic regions

[22]*

        

Urbanisation

 

[21, 22]

[27]a,b,e,q

 

[24]c,d

    

Safety

Density of traffic accidents

  

[27]a,b,q,e

      

Streetlight density

  

[27]a,b,e,g

      

Demographic-socioeconomic factors (income, employment)

Area-level SES

  

[28]h,i

      

Neighbourhood income

[23]d,f

 

[16]

[23]c,e,f [23]d,e

[25]c,d,e,f

[24]c,d

    

Socioeconomic deprivation

 

[27]a,b,e

       

Percent of residents on public assistance

  

[18]j,k

      

Percent of residents living below poverty line

  

[18]j,k

      

Percent of residents unemployed

  

[18]j,k

      

Demographic-education

Educational attainment at neighbourhood level

  

[23]c,d,e,f

      

Demographic-housing

Percent of residents living in owner-occupied housing

  

[18]j,k

      

Percent of residents living in the same house since 1995

  

[18]j,k

      

Percent of residents living in female headed households

  

[18]j,k

      

Demographic-ethnicity

Percent of residents born aboard

  

[18]j,k

      

Percent of residents being Black

  

[18]j,k

      

Demographic-parenthood

Single parenthood at neighbourhood level

  

[23]c,d,e,f

      

Interactions

Neighbourhood walkability × income

 

[16]

       

Neighbourhood walkability × parental concern

 

[16]

       

Distance to school × community

[26]#

        

Distance to central business district × block density

[25]c,d,e,##

        
  1. a walk; b bike; c to school; d from school; e home neighbourhood; f school neighbourhood; g en route; h 5-6 years old; i 10-12 years old; j trip less than 1.6 km; k trip greater than 1.6 km; l dependent travel; m independent travel
  2. n the ratio of manufacturing/trade/office/professional employment to the population; o the ratio of sales/service employment to the population
  3. *In U.S., adolescents living in South region were less likely to actively commute to school than those in Northeast region.
  4. #The strongest relationship between distance between home and school on AST was found in Biel (German-speaking) followed by Biel (French-speaking) and Bern.
  5. ##Children living in a neighbourhood with smaller blocks and located far from the central business district were less likely to walk than those living in a place with larger blocks and located closer to the central business district.