Table 4 Studies and effect sizes for parental modeling and girls' physical activity moderated by parental gender (k = 62)

Aarnio et al. (1997) [87] Finland

N = 3254

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA (n = 1130) & fathers’ PA: r = .046, p < .01

.07

1557 m, 1697 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ PA (n = 1123) & mothers’ PA: r = .101, p < .01

.14

16.0 yrs

Anderssen & Wold (1992) [88] Norway

N = 904

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: r = .14, p < .01

.19

498 m, 406 f

.70*

.78

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: r = .14, p < .01

.19

13.3 yrs

Anderssen et al. (2006) [89] Norway

N = 380

PRO (8 yrs)

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: β = .09

.12

191 m, 189 f

.70*

.83

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: β = .05

.07

13.3 yrs at baseline

Bastos et al. (2008) [90] Brazil

N = 857

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: r = −.08

-.11

411 m, 446 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: r = −.05

-.07

Age range: 10–19 yrs

Bogaert et al. (2003) [91] Australia

N = 59

PRO (1 yr)

Parent self-report

Parent report

Girls’ MVPA & mothers PA: r = .44, p = .03

.47

29 m, 30 f

Bouchard activity record .97

Bouchard activity record .91

8.6 yrs at baseline

Campbell et al. (2001) [92] Canada

N = 153

PRO (12 yrs)

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ MVPA & fathers’ PA: r = .001

.00

77 m, 76 f

.97

.91

Girls’ MVPA & mothers’ PA: r = .008

.01

13.5 yrs at baseline

Davison et al. (2001) [93] USA

N = 197

PRO

Parent self-report

Parent report

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: r = −.03 at baseline

-.05

All females

(2 yrs)

.70*

α = .58

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: r = .09 at baseline

.14

5.4 yrs at baseline

7.3 at follow-up

Davison et al. (2003) [94] USA

N = 180

CS

Parent report

PA measures as a composite score of CPA-short, an activity checklist, and PACER

Girls’ & fathers’ explicit modeling: r = .25, p < .01

.36

All females

Explicit modeling

.70*

Girls’ PA and mothers’ explicit modeling: r = .08

.11

9.0 yrs

.70*

Deflandre et al. (2001) [95] France

N = 80

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Girls’ MVPA & fathers’ PA: r = .30

.43

36 m, 44 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ MVPA & mothers’ PA: r = .16

.23

Age range: 11–16 yrs

Deflandre et al. (2001) [96] France

N = 48

CS

Child report

Heart rate monitor (7 d)

Girls’ MVPA & fathers ‘PA: r = .35

.50

26 m, 22 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ MVPA & mothers’ PA: r = .21

.30

17.0 yrs

Eriksson et al. (2008) [97] Sweden

N = 1124

CS

Baeke Questionnaire

Child self-report

Girls’ PA (sports) & fathers’ PA: crude OR = 2.2, 95% CI 1.1-4.2

.43

553 m, 571 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ PA (sports) & mothers’ PA: crude OR = 3.0, 95% CI 1.4-4.5

.58

12.0 yrs

Fogelholm et al. (1999) [98] Finland

N = 271

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ VPA & fathers’ PA: r = .24, p < .01

.34

143 m, 128 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ VPA & mothers’ PA: r = .28, p < .01

.40

9.6 yrs

Fuemmeler et al. (2011) [99] USA

N = 45

CS

Accelerometer (3 d)

Accelerometer (3 d)

Girls’ MVPA (weekend) & fathers’ PA: r = .37

.47

23 m, 22 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ MVPA (weekday) & fathers’ PA; r = .42, p < .05; r = .19

.96

9.9 yrs

Mean r = .327

Girls’ MVPA (weekday) & mothers’ PA: r = .70, p < .01; r = .64, p < .01

Girls’ MVPA (weekend) & mothers’ PA: r = .67, p < .01

Mean r = .670

Hinkley et al. (2012) [100] Australia

N = 705

CS

Parent self-report

Accelerometer (8 d)

Girls’ PA & father’s MPA: OR = 1.01, 95% CI 1.00-1.02, p < .05

.01

366 m, 262 f

.70* (94% respondents mothers)

.80*

Girls’ PA & mother’s VPA: OR = 1.01, 95% CI .99-1.02

.01

4.5 yrs

Jacobi et al. (2011) [101] France

N = 630

CS

Parent self-report

Pedometer (7 d)

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: r = .24

.34

317 m, 313 f

MAQ

.70*

Age range 8–18 yrs

Pedometer (7 d)

.70*

Jago et al. (2014) [102] UK

N = 822

CS

Accelerometer (5 d)

Accelerometer (5 d)

Girls’ MVPA & fathers’ MVPA: β = .07

.10

436 m, 386 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ MVPA & mothers’ MVPA: β = .15

.21

6.0 yrs

Kahn et al. (2008) [103] USA

N = 12812

PRO (1 yr)

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ MVPA & mothers’ PA: β = .13, p < .0001

.19

5575 m, 7237 f

.70*

.70*

Age range: 10–18 yrs

Madsen et al. (2009) [104] USA

N = 2379

PRO (9 yrs)

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ MVPA & child reported fathers’ PA (yr 3): r = .13, p < .05

.19

All females

.70*

HAQ

Girls’ MVPA & child reported fathers’ PA (yr 5): r = .08

.20

9-10 yrs followed to 18–19 yrs

Adolescent report

.70*

Girls’ MVPA & child reported fathers’ PA (yr 7): r = .13, p < .05

.70*

Girls’ MVPA & fathers’ PA (yr 9): r = .18, p < .05

Mean r = .13

Girls’ MVPA & child reported mothers’ PA (yr 3): r = .13, p < .05

Girls’ MVPA & child reported mothers’ PA (yr 5): r = .12

Girls’ MVPA & child reported mothers’ PA (yr 7): r = .16, p < .05

Girls’ MVPA & child reported mothers’ PA (yr 9): r = .16, p < .05

Mean r = .14

Martin-Matillas et al. (2011) [105] Spain

N = 2260

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: OR = 2.37, 95% CI 1.70-3.29, p < .001

.47

1157 m, 1103 f

Health Behaviour in Schoolchildren

.70*

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: OR = 1.90, 95% CI 1.41-2.56, p < .001

.35

Age range; 13–18.5 yrs

.70*

Moore et al. (1991) [52] USA

N = 100

CS

Accelerometer (7–9 d)

Accelerometer (8–9 d)

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: OR = 4.4, 95% CI 1.5-8.2

.66

63 m, 37 f

.80*

.80*

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: OR = 2.0, 95% CI .9-4.4

.33

Age range: 4–7 yrs

Nichols-English et al. (2006) [106] USA

N = 133

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ MPA & mothers’ MPA: r = .05

-.09

All female

7DPAR

7DPAR

Girls’ VPA & mothers’ VPA: r = −.16

9.6 yrs

.70*

.70*

Mean r = −.06

O’Loughlin et al. (1999) [107] Canada

N = 1920

CS

Child report .70*

Child self-report

Girls’ PA (sports) & mothers’ PA: OR = 1.6 95% CI 1.1-2.1

.26

989 m, 931 f

Weekly activity checklist

Age range: 9–13 yrs

Self-reported sports participation

.70*

Ohta et al. (2010) [108] Japan

N = 339

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: r = .163, p < .01

.23

All female

.70*

.70*

14.8 yrs

Pahkala et al. (2007) [109] Finland

N = 558

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: r = .10, p = .19

.21

294 m, 264 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: r = .15, p < .05

.17

13.0 yrs

Raudsepp (2006) [110] Estonia

N = 329

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ MVPA & fathers’ explicit modeling: r = .23, p < .01

.32

168 m, 161 f

Father’s modeling .72

7DPAR

Girls’ MVPA & mothers’ explicit modeling: r = .33, p < .01

.47

13.8 yrs

Mother’s modeling .71

.70*

Shropshire & Carroll (1997) [111] UK

N = 924

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA & fathers’ PA: r = .23

.33

468 m, 454 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ PA & mothers’ PA: r = .05

.07

Age range: 10–11 yrs

Siegel et al. (2011) [112] Mexico

N = 1004

CS

Child report

Child self-report PAQ

Girls’ MVPA (9–10 yrs) & fathers’ PA: β = .186, p < .05

.26

490 m, 514 f

.70*

α = .72

Girls’ MVPA (9–10 yrs) & mothers’ PA: β = .148, p < .05

.21

Age range: 9–18 yr olds

Girls’ MVPA (11–13 yrs) & fathers’ PA: β = .151, p < .05

.21

Girls’ MVPA (11–13 yrs) & mothers’ PA: β = .191, p < .05

.27

Sigmund et al. (2008) [113] Czech Republic

N = 192

CS

Parent report

Child report

Girls’ MPA & fathers’ PA: r = .15

.19

109 m, 89 f

IPAQ

IPAQ

Girls’ VPA & fathers’ PA: r = .10

.20

Age range: 8–13 yrs

.70*

.70*

Mean r = .13

Girls’ MPA & mothers’ PA: r = .28

Girls’ VPA & mothers’ PA: r = .27

Mean r = .14

Toftegaard-Stockel et al. (2011) [114] Denmark

N = 6356

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA (sports) & fathers’ PA: r = .11

.16

3190 m, 3166 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ PA (sports) & mothers’ PA: r = .22

.31

Age range: 12–16 yrs

Trost et al. (1997) [115] USA

N = 202

PRO

Child report

Child report

Girls’ MVPA & fathers’ PA: r = −.02

-.02

92 m, 110 f

(1 yr)

.70*

PDPAR

Girls’ MVPA & mothers’ PA: r = .09

.11

10-11 yrs at baseline

.98

Trost et al. (1999) [116] USA

N = 198

CS

Child report

Accelerometer (7 d)

Girls’ VPA & fathers’ PA: r = .10

.16

95 m, 103 f

.70*

.80*

Girls’ MPA & fathers’ PA: r = .13

.12

11.4 yrs

Mean r = .12

Girls’ VPA & mothers’ PA: r = .08

Girls’ MPA & mothers’ PA: r = .09

Mean r = .09

Wagner et al. (2004) [117] France

N = 2852

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Girls’ structured PA & fathers’ PA: OR = 1.41, 95% CI 1.03-1.92

.25

1421 m, 1431 f

.70*

MAQ-A

Girls’ structured PA & mothers’ PA: OR = 1.80, 95% CI 1.28-2.52

.19

12.0 yrs

.70*

Yang et al. (1996) [118] Finland

N = 635

PRO (12 yrs)

Child report

Child self-report

Girls’ PA (cohort 1) & fathers’ PA: r = .12

.20

316 m, 319 f

.70*

.70*

Girls’ PA (cohort 2) & fathers’ PA: r = .14

.17

9.0 yrs at baseline

Girls’ PA (cohort 3) & fathers’ PA: r = .15

N = 648

Mean r = .14

321 m, 327 f

Girls’ PA (cohort 1) & mothers’ PA: r = .14

12.0 yrs at baseline

Girls’ PA (cohort 2) & mothers’ PA: r = .12

N = 598

Girls’ PA (cohort 3) & mothers’ PA: r = .12

286 m, 312 f

Mean r = .12

15.0 yrs at baseline