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Table 1 Studies examining the teaching strategies/approaches used to promote healthy eating to primary school students

From: Teaching approaches and strategies that promote healthy eating in primary school children: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Author, Year, Country, Funding agency

Design, Dominant/Theory Framework*

Sample

Treatment Length

Teaching Strategy/Approach

Coupled with Physical Activity

Coupled with Specially-resourced teachers

Relevant Outcome Categories

Statistical Significance (p value /95% CI)

Effect Size (Cohen’s d )

M 1 - M 2/SDpooled

Randomised Controlled Trials

Francis et al. (2010) Trinidad & Tobago, Self-funded [40]

RCT/NR

579 x Grade 6 students

32 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Bloom’s mastery learning model

X

Children’s Eating Attitude Test-26 (M)

<0.05

0.20

Mean age: 10.4 yrs

Self Report

SLB consumption (Servings/wk)

NS

−0.42

Fried food consumption (Servings/day)

0.04

−0.21

HFSS food consumption (<502 kJ/day)

NS

−0.21

Quasi-experimental Trials

Auld et al. (1998) USA, Kraft Foods [43]

QE/SCT, CDT

851 x Grades K-5 students

4 years

Cross-curricular & experiential learning

X

FV Consumption (Plate waste)

<.001

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: NR

Self-efficacy (Likert scale)

- Food prep

<.01

- Eating FV

<.01

4th/5th Grade Knowledge (Test)

- Food Pyramid

<.001

- Ingredients

<.001

Bell & Lamb (1973) USA, Dairy Council Inc [44]

QE/NR

1913 x Grade 5 students

6 weeks

Popham Instruction Model (Define behavioural objectives, Diagnose student needs, Present learning opportunities, Evaluate attainment)

X

X

Milk consumption (oz.)

NS

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Vegetable consumption (oz.)

.05

Mean age: NR

Nutrition knowledge (Test)

.001

Edwards & Hermann (2011) USA, NR [45]

QE/NR

11 x Grade 1 students

3 weeks

Literary abstraction

X

X

Legume taking (Number)

.05

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: NR

Legume tasting (Number)

.14

Fahlman et al. (2008) USA, NR [46]

QE/NR

576 x students

4 weeks

(Curriculum approach) adapted Health Belief Model

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

Mean age: 12.2 yrs

- Grain consumption (Servings/day)

NS

−0.08

- Fruit consumption(Servings/day)

.047

0.97

- Vegetable consumption (Servings/day)

.018

0.49

- Dairy consumption (Servings/day)

NS

0.02

- Meat consumption (Servings/day)

NS

−0.02

Self Efficacy (Likert scale)

- Eat more FV

NS

1.11

- Eat less fat

NS

−0.15

- Drink less SLB

NS

−0.05

- Eat healthy at FF restaurants

NS

1.30

Friel et al. (1999) Ireland, Dept of Health [47]

QE/SLT

821 x Grades 3–4 students

10 weeks

Cross-curricular

X

Food Pairing Questionnaire

Mean age: NR

- Behaviour

<.01

0.72

- Preference

<.01

1.00

- Knowledge

NS

−0.29

Gortmaker et al. (1999) USA, Walton Family Foundation [48]

QE/SCT BCT

336 x Grades 4–5 students

2 years

Cross-curricular (Math, science, language, social studies, physical education) coupled with a Social Marketing Approach

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 9.1 yrs

- Energy from fat (%)

.04

- FV consumption (Servings/4184 kJ)

.01

- Vitamin C (mg/4184 kJ)

.01

Govula et al. (2007) USA, NR [30]

QE/NR

33 x Grade 3 students

6 weeks

(Curriculum approach) MyPyramid and Medicine Wheel Nutrition for Native Americans

X

X

Block Kids Fruit/Vegetable recall

- F&V consumption (Servings/per day)

.010

.10

Mean age: NR

Culturally appropriate lessons

- Fruit consumption (Servings/per day)

.519

−0.26

- Vegetable consumption (Servings/per day)

<.001

1.04

Knowledge Questionnaire (% correct)

<.001

Insufficient data

Horne et al. (2004) UK, Horticultural Development Council, Fresh Produce Consortium, ASDA, Co-operative Group, Safeway, Sainsbury, Somerfield, Tesco, Bird’s Eye [31]

QE/SLT

749 x Grades K-6 students

16 weeks

Animation abstraction and contingent reinforcement for F&V consumption

X

X

Consumption based on teacher visual estimates

Mean age: NR

- 5-7 yr/old fruit (%)

<.002

2.12

- 5-7 yr/old vegetable (%)

NR

2.01

- 7-11 yr/old fruit (%)

<.002

2.36

- 7-11 yr/old vegetable (%)

NR

1.51

Liquori et al. (1998) USA, NR [49]

QE/SCT

590 x Grades K-6 students

1 year

Experiential learning (Cooking, environment and community garden)

X

Food intake based on teacher visual estimates (%)

Grd K-3

Grd 4–6

Grd K-3

Grd 4-6

<.01

NS

−1.90

−2.03

Mean age: NR

Self report

- Preference for plant food

<.001

<.001

2.51

0.00

- Attitudes

NS

NS

0.59

0.04

- Knowledge

<.05

<.001

1.98

1.94

- Self efficacy in cooking

NS

<.05

0.79

0.70

- Food intentions

<.01

NS

0.63

−0.17

- Paired food choice

<.01

NS

1.58

−0.06

Manios et al. (2002), Greece, Kellogg’s, Greek Ministry of Sport, Greek Ministry of Education [50]

QE/NR

1006 x Grade 1 students

6 years

(Curriculum approach) Literary abstraction

Parental reporting (Food Diary)

Age range: 5.5-6.5 yrs

- Energy (kJ)

<.05

−0.38

- Total fat (g)

<.05

−0.38

- Protein (g)

<.05

−0.42

- Carbohydrate (g)

NS

−0.23

McAleese & Rankin (2007), USA, NR [36]

QE/NR

99 x Grade 6 students

12 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Nutrition in the Garden

X

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

Mean age: 11.11 yrs

Experiential learning (School garden)

- Fruit (Servings/day)

<.001

1.17

- Vegetables (Servings/day)

<.001

0.92

- Vitamin A (μg/day)

.004

0.20

- Vitamin C (mg/day)

.016

0.49

- Fibre (g/day)

.001

0.56

Morgan et al. (2010) Australia, Hunter Medical Research, Coles [51]

QE/SCT

127 x Grades 5–6 students

10 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Nutrition in the Garden – Modified

X

X

FV knowledge (Gimme 5 Questionnaire)

<.02

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Age range: 11-12 yrs

Experiential learning (School garden)

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

.22

- Vegetable intake (Servings/day)

.23

- Fruit intake (Servings/day)

Simmons-Morton et al. (1991), USA, HHLBI Grant [52]

QE/SCT

135 x Grades K-4 students)

40 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Behaviour-based Health & Physical Education

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

Mean age: NR

(Canteen) New School Lunch

- Analysis of tray lunch (% kcals)

<.05

−0.10

- Analysis of bag lunch (% kcals)

<.05

0.03

Cluster-Controlled Trials

Agozzino et al. (2007), Italy, NR [53]

CT/CogT

570 x students (30 x 4 & 5 grade classes)

40 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Didactic-approach to health education

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

- Breakfast consumption (Sufficient)

<.001

- Meat consumption (Sufficient)

.003

- Fish consumption (Sufficient)

.02

- Pulse consumption (Sufficient)

.003

- Vegetable consumption (Sufficient)

<.001

Amaro et al. (2005), Italy, Amici di Raoul Follereau (AIFO) [54]

CT/NR

241 x students Mean age: 12.4 yrs

24 weeks

Kalèdo Board Game (15-30mins play time p/w)

X

X

Nutritional knowledge (31 items)

<0.05

Insufficient data reported for calculation

BMI (z-score)

NS

Anderson et al. (2005), UK, Food Standards Agency [55]

CT/TPB

129 x Grades 1–6 students

36 weeks

(Curriculum approach) based on experiential learning, video & literary abstraction

X

X

Cognitive & attitudinal (Likert scale)

Mean age: 8.5 yrs

Marketing and canteen provisions

- Diet heart disease knowledge

.001

0.24

- Preference for HFSS foods

.034

−0.32

3-day food diary

- FV consumption (g)

.617

0.07

- Energy (kJ)

.327

0.00

- Sucrose (g)

.578

0.01

Baronowski et al. (2000), USA, NR [32]

CT/SCT

3347 x Grades 4–6 students

12 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Gimme 5

X

X

7-day food record

Mean age: NR

Experiential learning, goal setting & problem solving, contingent reinforcement for F&V consumption

- FV consumption (Servings)

<.05

0.03

- Vegetable consumption(Servings)

<.01

0.00

Questionnaire (Likert scale)

- Self efficacy (Eating FV)

<.10

0.02

- Social norms

<.10

0.00

- Asking behaviour

<.05

0.06

- Knowledge

<.05

0.05

Bere et al. (2006), Norway, Norwegian Research Council [56]

CT/SCT

369 x Grade 6 students

28 weeks

(Curriculum approach) National Curriculum

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 11.3 yrs

Experiential learning (Cooking/Food Prep)

- FV consumption (Servings per day)

.41

Curriculum enjoyment (Likert scale)

.004

Cooke (2011), UK, Medical Research Council National Prevention Research Initiative [57]

CT/mixed

442 x Kindergarten students

2 weeks

Contingent reinforcement for vegetable tasting

X

X

Liking of vegetables (Likert scale)

.001

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 6 yrs

Intake of vegetables

.001

Day et al. (2008), Canada, NR [58]

CT/NR

444 x Grades 4–5 students

12 weeks

Integrates classroom learning, environmental change strategies, and a family/community component to promote the consumption of FV

X

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

Mean age: 10.0 yrs

- Fruit consumption (Servings)

<.05

−0.04

- Vegetable consumption (Servings)

NS

−0.05

- F V consumption (Servings)

<.05

−0.06

- Variety of FV consumption (Servings)

<.05

−0.01

Domel et al. (1993) USA, The International Apple Institute [59]

CT/SCT

301 x Grades 4–5 students

6 weeks

“5 a Day - for Better Health”

X

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

- F V consumption (Servings)

NS

0.47

- Fruit consumption (Servings)

.001

0.74

- Juice consumption (Servings)

NS

−0.14

- Vegetable consumption (Servings)

.018

0.28

- Legume consumption (Servings)

NS

0.45

Questionnaire (Likert scale)

- Fruit

.046

0.35

- Vegetables

NS

0.32

FV Knowledge (Multiple choice score)

<.001

0.59

Duncan et al. (2011) New Zealand, Health Research Council NZ [60]

CT/NR

97 x Grades 5–6 students

6 weeks

Curriculum approach with “Healthy Homework” Teaching Resource

X

Food Diaries

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: NR

Experiential learning (Cooking)

- Fruit consumption (Servings/per day)

NS

- Vegetable consumption (Servings/per day)

.016

- Unhealthy food consumption (Servings per/day)

.042

- Unhealthy drink consumption (Servings/per day)

NS

Foster et al. (2008), USA, CDC, US Department of Agriculture/Food and Nutrition Service [61]

CT/NR

1349 x Grades 4–6 students

2 years

The School Nutrition Policy Initiative included the following components: school self-assessment, nutrition education, nutrition policy, social marketing, and parent outreach. Cross-curricular/Integrated learning

X

BMI (z score)

.80

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 11.2 yrs

Total Energy (kJ/day)

.12

Total Fat (g/day)

.12

FV Consumption (Servings/per day)

.82

Gorely et al. (2009) UK, Great Run, Coca-Cola Company [62]

CT/SCT

589 x students

40 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Physical education lessons and homework tasks

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 8.8 yrs

Fun run event

- FV Consumption (Servings/per day)

NS

Knowledge of healthy lifestyle (MC Test)

NS

Head (1974) USA, Emergency food and Medical Services [63]

CT/NR

4,700 x Grades 5, 7 & 10 students

20 weeks

Cross Curriculum approach in nutrition, reading, math, history, art, music and science

X

X

Knowledge (% correct)

<.05

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: NR

School lunch (% of plate waste)

<.05

Acceptance of school served food (%)

NS

Hendy et al. (2011) USA, grants from Penn State University [64]

CT/SCT

382 x Grades 1–4 students

12 weeks

Kid’s Choice Program (KCP), contingent reinforcement supported by parental involvement.

X

Eating FV first in meals

<.001

Insufficient data reported for calculation

SDT

Choosing low fat and low sugar drinks

<.001

Hoffman et al. (2010) USA, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [65]

CT/SLT

297 x Kindergarten & Grade 1 students

2 years

Cross-Curricular program included school-wide, classroom, lunchroom, and family components

X

X

Plate Waste Weight

Year 1

Year 2

Year 1

Year 2

- Fruit intake(g)

<.001

<.001

0.86

0.55 -

- Vegetable intake (g)

<.01

NS

0.34

 

James et al. (2005) UK, GlaxoSmithKline, Aventis, Pfizer, Florence Nightingale Foundation [33]

CT/NR

644 x 2nd-6th Grade students

40 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Reducing SLB consumption

X

3-Day Consumption Diary

Mean age: 8.7 yrs

Cross curricular approach in Health, Science, Music and Art

- SLB Consumption (Servings)

0.02

0.83

Kipping (2010), UK, Department of Health [66]

CT/SCT

393 x Grade 5 students

20 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Eat Well Keep Moving program

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

BCT

Mean age: 9.4 yrs

- FV consumption (Servings/per day)

NS

- Snack consumption (Servings/per day)

NS

- HFF consumption (Servings/per day)

NS

- SLB consumption (Servings/per day)

NS

Kristjansdottir et al. (2010) Iceland, The University of Iceland, The Icelandic Centre for Research, Brim Seafood [67]

CT/NR

171 x Grade 2 students

2 years

(Curriculum approach) co developed with teachers and supported by homework, letters to parents and meetings with parents

X

X

Food record by parents

Mean age: NR

- FV consumption (g/day)

<.001

0.93

- Fruit consumption (g/day)

.001

0.62

- Vegetable consumption (g/day)

<.001

1.35

Luepker et al. (1996) USA, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute [68]

CT/NR

5106 x Grade 3 students

3 years

(Curriculum Approach) (Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health-CATCH)

X

School Lunch Menu Analysis

Mean age: NR

Enhanced PE and classroom health curricula. 28 additional schools received these components plus family education.

- Total energy intake (MJ)

<.001

0.02

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

- Total energy intake (MJ)

.01

0.07

- Total energy from fat (%)

.001

0.17

Health Behaviour Questionnaire

- Dietary knowledge

<.001

0.25

Mangunkusumo et al. (2007) The Netherlands, Organisation for Health Research and Development [69]

CT/NR

675 x 7th Grade students

12 weeks

Internet-tailored advice followed by dietary counselling

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 10.3 yrs

-Vegetable consumption (g/per day)

NS

- Behavioural determinants

NS

Muth (2008) USA, American Medical Association [70]

CT/SCT

73 x 4th Grade students

12 weeks

(Curriculum approach) (Improving Meals and Physical Activity in Children and Teens (IMPACT)

X

X

Texas School Physical Activity and Nutrition Questionnaire (SPAN)

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 9.9 yrs

Train-the-trainer model with HS students trained to teach 4th graders

- FV Consumption (Servings/per day)

.05

- Nutritional knowledge (%)

.01

Panunzio et al. (2007) Italy, NR [71]

CT/NR

471 x 4th Grade students

36 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Teachers vs Nutritionists

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: 9.6 yrs

- FV consumption (>1 serving p/day)

<0.01

- Legume consumption (>1 serving p/day)

<0.01

- Chips consumption (>1 serving p/day)

<0.01

- SLB consumption (>1 serving p/day)

<0.01

Parcel et al. (1989) USA, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute [72]

CT/SLT

398 x K-4th Grade students

14 weeks

(Curriculum approach) 3 concurrent programs: the New School Lunch, Children’s Active Physical Education (CAPE), and Go For Health classroom instruction.

X

Behavioural Capability Questionnaire

Mean age: NR

- Diet behavioural capability (Score)

<.01

0.89

- Diet self-efficacy (Score)

NS

0.15

- Diet behavioural expectations (Score)

<.01

0.73

Self-Reported Behaviour

- Salt use (Daily use)

NS

0.00

- FV consumption (% of total intake)

NS

0.13

Parmer (2009) USA, NR [73]

CT/ELT

115 x 2nd Grade students

28 weeks

(Curriculum approach)

X

X

FV Survey (Likert Scale)

Mean age: 7.3 yrs

Nutrition lessons + school garden

- MyPyramid food groups

NS

0.59

Experiential Learning (Gardening + Food Prep)

- Nutrient–food association

< .001

1.13

- Nutrient–job association

< .001

0.99

- F V identification

< .01

2.03

Researcher Observed Lunch Choices

- Vegetable choice (Servings)

<.01

1.09

- Vegetable consumption (Servings)

<.01

1.41

Perry et al. (1998) USA, National Cancer Institute [74]

CT/SLT

441 x 4- 5th Grade students

40 weeks

The 5-a-Day Power Plus Program

X

X

Researcher Observed Lunch Choices

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: NR

- behavioural curricula

- FV consumption (Servings)

<.001

- parental involvement/education

- Vitamin A (μg)

.02

- school food service changes

- Vitamin C (mg)

<.001

- industry involvement and support.

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

- Fruit consumption (Servings)

.02

- Total fat consumption (%/kcal)

.02

- Calcium (mg)

.04

Health Behaviour Questionnaire

 

- Asking for F V (LIkert Scale)

.03

- Servings of FV (Nominal Scale)

<.001

- Knowledge of servings (Nominal Scale)

<.001

Perry, Mulis et al. (1985), USA, NR [75]

CT/SLT

371 x 3rd-4th Grade students

10 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Hearty Heart and Friends program

X

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

PBT

Mean age: NR

- Sugared cereal consumption (Less)

<.05

- Green vegetable consumption

<.02

- Fruit consumption

<.01

- Fried food consumption (Less)

<.005

- Added salt consumption (Less)

<.05

Powers et al. (2005), USA. State Cooperative Extension System and State Department of Human Resources [76]

CT/SCT

1100 x 2nd- 3rd Grade students

6 weeks

Pizza Please Board Game with Nutrition education

X

Dietary Consumption Behaviour (Self report frequency)

<.001

0.23

Mean age: 7.6 yrs

- Dairy consumption

.001

0.22

- FV consumption

.016

0.15

Nutrition Knowledge (Item matching)

<.001

0.77

- Food appropriate Food Guide Pyramid

<.001

0.31

- Nutrient-food association

<.001

0.54

- Nutrient-job association

<.001

0.60

Quinn et al. (2003) USA, Kappa Omicron Nu, Food Bank of Central New York [77]

CT/NR

126 x 5th Grade students

40 weeks

Experiential learning (Cooking) Modified CookShop program. Taught in schools with the support of parents

X

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake & Food Frequency Questionnaire (NCI)

- Dietary Fibre (mg)

<.05

0.33

- Folate (mcg)

<.05

0.16

- Fruit consumption (Servings)

<.05

0.28

- Milk consumption (Servings)

<.001

0.47

Resnicow et al. (1998) USA, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute [78]

CT/SCT

966 x 4th - 5th Grade students

6 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Gimme-5 curriculum.

X

- FV preference (Likert scale)

<.001

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age: NR

Teachers received the teacher wellness program involving 54 workshops over 2 yrs

(in favour of control)

Reynolds et al. (2000) USA, National Cancer Institute Grant [79]

CT/SCT

1698 x 4th Grade students

2 years

High 5 intervention on FV consumption based around 3 interventions: classroom component, Parent component, Food Service component.

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age:8.7 yrs

- Fruit consumption (Servings)

<.001

- Vegetables consumption (Servings)

<.001

- FV consumption (Servings)

<.001

- Calories from fat (%)

<.041

- Calories from carbohydrates (%)

<.017

- Fibre (g)

<.012

- Folate (μg)

<.034

- β-Catotine (μg)

<.034

- Vitamin C (mg)

<.048

Sahota et al. (2001) UK, Northern and Yorkshire Region Research and Development Unit [80]

CT/NR

636 x 4th-5th Grade students Mean age: 8.4 yrs

40 weeks

Active programme promoting lifestyle in schools (APPLES program)

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Multidisciplinary, multiagency programme designed to influence diet and physical activity

- Vegetable consumption

<.05

Cross Curricular whole school community including parents, teachers, and catering staff

Shannon & Chen (1988), USA, Pennsylvania State Department of Education [81]

CT/NR

1707 x 3rd Grade students

3 years

(Curriculum approach) Nutrition in a Changing World (K-12 program).

X

X

Knowledge (Test scores)

<.001

Insufficient data reported for calculation

Mean age:NR

Food attitudes (Likert scale)

<.001

Eating behaviours (24 hr recall)

<.001

Smolak et al. (1998), USA, Ohio Dept of Education[82]

CT/NR

253 x 5th Grade students

24 weeks

(Curriculum approach) Eating Smart, Eating for Me

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

 

Boys

Girls

Mean age: NR

- Vegetable consumption (Servings)

NS

  

(<.05 by sex)

−0.31

0.24

Spiegel & Foulk (2006), USA, Institute for America’s Health [83]

CT/TRA

1013 x 4th-5th Grade students

24 weeks

Wellness, Academics & You (WAY) Program

X

BMI (kg/m2)

0.01

−0.38

Mean age: NR

Cross-curricular – Language arts, mathematics, science & health education

FV Consumption (Survey)

NS

-

Taylor et al. (2007), New Zealand, NR[34]

CT/NR

730 x primary students

2 years

APPLE Project - Community driven healthy eating & physical activity initiative.

Three-day recall intakes

Cross curricular school-based science nutrition lessons, recess activities & GoTri card game

- SLB consumption (Servings)

0.04

−0.21

- Juice consumption (Servings)

0.03

−0.24

- Water consumption (Servings)

0.07

0.24

- Fruit consumption (Servings)

<0.01

0.32

BMI (z-score)

<0.05

−0.49

te Velde et al. (2007), The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Commission of European Communities (RTD) programme[84]

CT/SCT

1472 x 5th-6th Grade students

52 weeks

Pro-children intervention (Three countries)

X

24 hr recall of Daily Dietary Intake

Mean age: 10.7 yrs

- Curriculum approach (w/web based feedback tool)

- FV consumption (g/d) All Countries

<0.02

0.18

- Free FV provision in schools

- FV consumption (g/d) Norway

<0.05

0.37

- Family web based feedback tool

- FV consumption (g/d) Spain

<0.05

0.15

- FV consumption (g/d) The Netherlands

<0.05

0.12

  1. TPB = Theory of Planned Behaviour; SCT = Social Cognitive Theory; CDT = Cognitive Development Theory; SLT = Social Learning Theory; BCT = Behavioural Choice Theory; CogT = Cognitive Theory; SDT = Self Determination Theory; GST = Group Socialization Theory; ELP = Experiential Learning Theory; PBT = Problem Behaviour Theory; TRA = Theory of Reasoned Action; RCT = Randomised controlled trial; QE = Quasi-experimental; CT = Cluster-controlled trial; NR = Not reported; NS = Not significant; FV = Fruit and vegetable; SLB = Sugar-laden beverages; HFSS = High fat, sugar & salt; HFF = High Fat Food; FF = Fast food, BMI = Body Mass Index.