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Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies

From: Correlates of meal skipping in young adults: a systematic review

Reference, year

Country

Design

Sample characteristics, N (% women)

Participants; age, years (mean ± SD)

How was meal skipping measured?

Definition of meal skipping

Frequency of meal skipping

Correlates of meal skipping

1. Afolabi et al. 2013 [34]

Nigeria

Cross-sectional

University students; 140 (40% F)

N/R

Q: Do you skip meals? (Yes/No)

Q: Why do you skip meals?

“Yes”; Text

53.6% M skipped meals,

35% F skipped meals

Reasons for skipping meals:

-Time 48%,

-Appetite 19%,

-Cannot cook 13%,

-Illness 3%,

-Money 6%

2. Akarslan et al. 2008 [61]

Turkey

Cross-sectional

Young adults; 416 (59% F)

18-25 years; (23.2 ± 0.97 years)

Q: Frequency of B, L, D?

(Almost always/Sometimes/Very seldom/Never in a one year period)

N/R

70% had regular main meals. Regular B 69.2%,

Regular L 75.5%,

Regular D 76.0%

SEX: (0 TMS)

3. Aryee et al. 2013 [35]

Ghana

Cross-sectional

Nurses; 220; (66% F)

20–60 years; (67.3% 20–30 years)

Q: Do you meal skip?

(Yes/No)

“Yes”

53.6% skipped meals

BMI: (+TMS)

4. Bahl et al. 2013 [36]

USA

Cross-sectional

College students (Business); 353 (43% F)

N/R

Q: How many days during the last week (0–7) did you skip meals?

Numerical

Participants who had mindfulness training skipped meals on 1.25 days during the last week compared to 1.94 days for the non-training group

MINDFULLNESS: (- TMS)

SATISFIED: (quality of life - TMS)

5. Beerman et al. 1990 [62]

USA

Cross-sectional

College students (Nutrition); 152 (56% F)

74% ≤ 21 years

Q: Do you skip meals? (Regularly/Rarely)

“Regularly”

66% of on or off campus students skipped meals.

36% of those living in Greek housing skipped meals.

LIVING SITUATION: (Greek housing -TMS)

SEX: (0 TMS)

Reasons for meal skipping:

-Time 61%

6. Chung et al. 2003 [37]

Korea

Cross-sectional

College students; 180 (100% F)

20.41 ± 1.82 years

Q: What is your breakfast status?

(Rarely eating, Frequently eating or Daily eating)

“Rarely eating” or “Frequently eating”

74.4% skipped B

BMI: (0 TMS)

7. Colić Barić et al. 2003 [38]

Croatia

Cross-sectional

University students; 2075 (53% F)

21.7 ± 2.0 years

Specially designed FFQ

Numerical;

Regular B, defined as having B 6 or 7 times per week

B consumed on 3.4 days/week,

L 6 days/week,

D 4.7 days/week.

32.2% F and 25.7% M consumed B regularly

SEX: (F + L, +D)

BMI: (+BS)

EXERCISE: (3.5 h versus 2.6 h of exercise per week -BS)

8. Danquah et al. 2010 [39]

Ghana

Cross-sectional

University students; 150 (75% F)

64.6% 21–30 years

Q: Do you eat breakfast?

(Yes/No)

“No”

25% skipped B,

8% skipped L,

5% skipped D

ETHNIC: (Caucasian -BS)

SEX: (F + BS)

AGE: (15–20 years -BS)

COURSE TYPE: (Science students + BS)

Reasons for skipping B:

-No time (57%),

-Not hungry (22%),

-Eat late at night (5%),

-Busy schedule (3%),

-No reason (13%).

Reasons for skipping L:

-No time (50%),

-Not hungry (25%),

-No reason (3%),

Reasons for skipping D:

-No time (38%),

-Busy schedule (12%),

-Watching my weight (50%)

9. Deepika 2015

India

Cross-sectional

College students; 120 (80% F)

18–23 years

Q: Do you A) Take all three meals, B) Skip meals with substitute or C) Skip meals without substitute?

“B” or “C”

83.3% skipped meals

Reason for skipping meals:

-Time 40%,

-Taste 30%,

-Social desirable 28.3%,

- Habit 1.7%

10. Eittah 2014 [41]

Egypt

Cross-sectional

University students (Nursing); 300 (100% F)

17–22 years; (20.05 ± 1.62 years)

Q: Do you always neglect to eat - B, L, D?

(Yes/No)

“Yes”

72.7% skipped B,

7.3% skipped D,

6% skipped B and D

MENSTRUAL REGULARITY: (Menstrual regularity -BS)

11. Eldisoky, 2003 [42]

Saudi Arabia

Cross-sectional

University students; 61 (100% F)

19–24 years

Q: Do you usually have B?

(Yes/Sometimes/No)

“Sometimes” or “No”

63% skipped B,

61% skipped L,

31% skipped D

MOTHERS EDUCATION LEVEL: (0 TMS)

Reasons for skipping meals:

-Hunger 48%,

-Time 31%,

-Weight control 21%

12. Evagelou et al. 2014 [43]

Greece

Cross-sectional

University students (Nursing); 435 (83.4% F)

N/R

Q: N/R

(Rarely/At least one/Two/Three/Four/Five/Six/Seven times a week)

N/R

31% skipped B

SEX: (0 BS)

13. Freedman 2010 [63]

USA

Cross-sectional

College freshman; 756 (61% F)

N/R

Q: Frequency of meal intake? (Never/1-3 times a week/4-6 times a week/7 days a week)

“Never”

24.7% skipped B,

7% skipped D

LIVING SITUATION: (On campus + BS)

SEX: (F + DS)

ETHINICITY: (Caucasian -BS, -DS)

14. Huang et al., 1994 [44]

USA

Cross-sectional

College students (Nutrition); 1912 (68% F)

M 20 years, F 19 years

1 day-food record (weekday)

Meal not reported in food record

22% skipped B,

8% skipped L,

5% skipped D

SEX: (0 TMS)

15. Kapinos & Yakusheva, 2011 [31]

USA

Longitudinal

University students; 388 (63% F)

18.1 years

Q: Over the past year, how many meals per day did you typically eat?

Numerical

2.88 meals/day at baseline,

2.61 meals/day one year later

ENROLLING IN UNI: (Second year of uni + TMS)

LIVING SITUATION: (M living in dormitories with a dining hall -TMS)

16. Kim et al., 2010 [45]

China

Cross-sectional

First year University students; 2427 (63.4% F)

18.9 years

Q: Have you in the past month skipped meals? (Often/Occasionally/Never)

N/R

Skipped meals at least monthly in past year -16.2%, Skipped meals in the past week - 4.8%

INTERNET USE: (4 + hours/day + TMS)

17. Lamia Dhia & Ban Faud 2014 [46]

Iraq

Cross-sectional

University students; 350 (Sex NR)

N/R

Q: No of meal/day?

Q: If missed what is the most missed meal?

Numerical; Text

51.1% consumed < 3 meals/day.

Of those who missed a meal 88.5% skipped B, 11.5% skipped D

Reasons for meal skipping:

-Time

18. Laska et al. 2010 [1]

USA

Cross-sectional

Young adults; 1687 (56% F)

18–23 years; (20.5 years)

Q: How often do you eat B, L, D during the past week? (Never/1–2 d/3–4 d/5–6 d/Every day)

Numerical

B consumption ranged from 2.7 to 3.5 days/week,

L 5.3–5.8,

D 6.1–6.5.

LIVING SITUATION: (Living with parents + BS, +DS)

19. Lee & Yoon 2014 [47]

Korea

Cross-sectional

University students (Food and Nutrition 50.3%); 159 (62.3% F)

18–28 years; 56% 18–20 years

Q: Missed meal?

Q: Reason of skipping meal?

Text; Text

83.6% skipped B,

6.9% skipped L,

8.2% skipped D

AGE: (18–20 years + TMS)

Reason for skipping B:

-Time 61%,

-Habit 17.6%,

-Appetite 11.9%

20. Musaiger & Radwan 1995 [48]

United Arab Emirates

Cross-sectional

University students; 215 (100% F)

18–30 years; (19.7 ± 1.3 years)

Specially designed questionnaire on meal pattern

N/R

15.8% skipped B,

11.2% skipped L,

7% skipped D

BMI: (0 TMS)

21. Neslisah & Emine 2011 [49]

Turkey

Cross-sectional

University students; 400 (42% F)

19–24 years; (21.7 ± 1.8 years)

1 × 24 h diet record

Meal not reported in food record

47.7% skipped B,

25.2% skipped L

SEX: (M+ BS) (F + LS)

22. Nicklas et al. 1998 [12]

USA

Cross-sectional

Young adults; 504 (58% F)

19–28 years; (23 years)

1 × 24 h diet recall

B had to equal or exceed macronutrient value of 1 serving of milk.

37% skipped B

ETHNICITY: (0 BS)

SEX: (0 BS)

23. Nzeagwu & Akagu 2011 [50]

Nigeria

Cross-sectional

University students; 342 (63% F)

16–25 years; 81% 20–25 years

Q: What meal do you usually skip?

Q: Why do you skip meals?

Text; Text

27.8% skipped B,

16.9% skipped L,

5.6% skipped D,

4.4% skipped B and L,

2.3% skipped B and D,

.5% skipped L and D

Reasons for skipping meals:

-Time 40.5%,

-Fasting/religion 6.7%,

-Weight control 10.4%,

-Money 9.9%

24. Ozilgen 2011 [51]

Turkey

Cross-sectional

University students; 408 (56% F)

18–24 years

Q: How many times a day do you eat B, L, and D?

Numerical

~80% F skipped meals,

~72% M skipped meals,

~77% M skipped B,

~61% F skipped B

SEX: (M + BS)

25. Sakamaki et al. 2005 [52]

Japan and Korea

Cross-sectional

University students (141 Korean), 124 Japan); 265 (100% F)

(20 ± 1.8 years)

Q: Do you always take breakfast?

(Daily/3-4 times per week/Once or twice per week/Rarely)

Everything except “Daily”

21% Japanese skipped B,

64% Korean skipped B

ETHNICITY: (Japanese –BS)

26. Sato-Mito et al. 2011 [32]

Japan

Cross-sectional

University students living at home (Dietetics); 3304 (100% F)

18–20 years; (18.1 ± 0.3 years)

Q: During the previous month how many meals have you skipped?

Numerical

B skipped 1.00 ± 1.74 times/week, L skipped 0.20 ± 0.73 times/week,

D skipped 0.32 ± 1.09 times/week

SLEEP: (Feel asleep later in the night + TMS)

27. Shimbo et al. 2004 [53]

Japan

Cross-sectional

University Students; 71 (100% F)

19–23 years;

1 × 24 h food duplicate portion samples

Meal not reported in food record

14% skipped B

LIVING SITUATION: (Living away from home + BS)

28. Suliburska et al. 2012 [54]

Poland

Cross-sectional

Young adults; 600 (50% F)

18 years

Q: How many meals do you consumed in a typical day of the week?

Numerical

5% of overweight ate >2 meals/day,

9% of normal weight ate >2 meals/day

BMI: (Overweight –TMS)

SEX: (F-TMS)

LIVING SITUATION: (Rural + TMS)

29. Suliga et al. 2012 [55]

Poland

Cross-sectional

University students; 925 (100% F)

N/R

Q: Frequency of main meals (B, L, D, and S)?

(Daily/2-6 times a week/Rarely)

“Rarely”

11% rarely ate B,

8.2% rarely ate L,

12.6% rarely ate D

BODY WEIGHT SELF PERCEPTION: (+ TMS)

30. Tanaka et al. 2008 [33]

Japan

Cross-sectional

University students (Medicine); 127 (30.4% F)

(20.5 ± 0.8 years)

Q: B consumption

(Every day/Not every day/Completely skipping everyday)

“Completely skipping everyday”

15.7% skipped B

FATIGUE: (+BS)

31. Tominaga et al. 2012 [56]

Japan, Korea and Austria

Cross-cultural

University students; 276 Japan, 103 Korea, 127 Austria, (100% F)

Japan; (19.9 ± 1.2 years), Korea (21.5 ± 1.8 years), Austria (22.3 ± 5.2 years)

Q: Frequency of B, L, D

(Never/Occasionally/Sometimes/Almost every day)

“Never” or “Occasionally” or “Sometimes”

JAPAN - 50% skipped B,

15% skipped L,

17% skipped D.

KOREA - 54% skipped B,

51% skipped L,

46% skipped D.

AUSTRIA - 42% skipped B,

29% skipped L,

47% skipped D

ETHNICITY: (Austrian –BS), (Japanese –LD and DS)

32. Ukegbu et al. 2015 [57]

Nigeria

Cross-sectional

University students; 200 (47% F)

16–25 years

2 × 24 h recalls. Consecutive days including a weekend day.

Meal not reported in food record

41.5% skipped B,

21.5% skipped L,

7% skipped D

Reason for meal skipping:

-Time 42.5%,

-Weight control 23.5%,

-Fasting/religion 21.5%,

-Money 12.5%

33. Yahia et al. 2008 [58]

Lebanon

Cross-sectional

University students; 220 (56.4% F)

(20 ± 1.9 years)

Q: Do you take breakfast? (Daily/3-4 times per week/1-2 per week/Rarely)

“Rarely”

67% skipped B

SEX: (M + BS)

34. Yildiza et al. 2011 [59]

Turkey

Cross-sectional

University students (Medical); 301 (100% F)

18–25 years; (21.2 ± 1.7 years)

Q: Frequency of B, L, D?

(Never/Occasionally/Most of the days/Everyday)

“Never” or “Occasionally” or “Most of the days”

74% skipped B,

57% skipped L,

37% skipped D,

69.7% were skipping at least one meal per day.

Reason for meal skipping:

-Time 46.7%

35. Yilmaz et al. 2014 [60]

Turkey

Cross-sectional

University students (Medical); 995 (48% F)

M (21.25 ± 1.97 years); F (20.94 ± 1.77)

Q: I usually skip meals?

(Yes/No)

“Yes”

35.8% skip B,

27.9% usually skip meals

DEPRESSION: (+BS)

  1. N/R not reported, M males, F females, B breakfast, L lunch, D dinner, BMI body mass index, FFQ food frequency questionnaire, BS Breakfast skipping, LS Lunch skipping, DS Dinner skipping, TMS Total meal skipping, (0) = No association, (+) = Positive association, (-) = Negative association