Skip to main content

Table 1 110 food parenting concepts grouped into 17 clusters based on qualitative cluster assignment informed by published Food Parenting Framework [11] of expert’s sorting (corresponds with Fig. 2)

From: Food parenting practices for 5 to 12 year old children: a concept map analysis of parenting and nutrition experts input

Concept Number

Food Parenting Practice Concept

Hierarchal Analysis Point MapCluster Assignmenta

Qualitative Content Map Cluster Assignment

Definition

Control

54

I restrict my child’s food intake to control his/her weight.

3

A: Restriction for Weight

Due to concern for child’s weight, parent restricts access to or discourages consumption of certain foods, large portions, multiple servings, or frequent snacks.

68

I tell my child to avoid certain food or drinks as they can make him/her fat.

1

  

22

I use food to soothe my child.

2

B: Using Food to Control Negative Emotions

“Parent uses food to manage or calm the child when he/she is upset, fussy, angry, hurt, or bored.” [11]

23

I give my child food to keep him/her occupied.

2

  

17

I reward my child with something tasty (e.g. dessert) as a way to get him/her to eat [food/healthy food/all his/her dinner].

3

C: Threats and Bribes

Parent threatens to take or takes something away for misbehavior or promises/offers something to the child to coerce them into desired behavior. Threats and bribes related to food include those used to manage child’s general behavior by using food as reward or threat; or using threats or bribes to influence the child’s eating behaviors. (modified from Vaughn et al.) [11]

18

I tell my child that I will take away privileges (e.g., screen time) if s/he does not eat (./healthy food type).

3

  

19

I punish my child (e.g., send away from table, spank) if s/he does not want to finish his/her plate, taste a food, or eat fruit or vegetables.

3

  

20

I promise my child [unhealthy food] as a reward for good behavior.

3

  

24

I scold or show disapproval when my child eats too much.

3

  

25

I show disapproval by arguing with or yelling at my child for not eating [healthy food].

3

  

73

I use scare tactics to discourage my child from eating unhealthy foods.

4

  

88

I use threats to get my child to eat.

4

  

89

I make my child feel guilty when s/he doesn’t eat vegetables or finish his/her meal.

3

  

105

I withhold dessert as a consequence for bad behavior.

3

  

106

I discipline my child if s/he consumes an unhealthy food/drinks without my permission.

4

  

16

I make sure my child eats [all their dinner/all their fruits/vegetables] before s/he can have dessert.

4

D: Pressure to Eat

Parent is forceful or demanding in order to push the child to eat food, when child is either not interested in eating, not hungry, or does not want to eat or taste the food that is served during a meal or snack. The parent does not take into consideration the child’s current hunger or satiety, nor the child’s food preferences. (modified from Vaughn et al.) [11]

42

I beg my child to eat (./at least something from his/her plate).

4

  

51

I make my child eat all the food on his/her plate.

4

  

52

I get my child to eat more vegetables, even if s/he says “I’m not hungry.”

4

  

53

I insist/force my child to “try one bite” or taste a [food/healthy food].

4

  

21

I trick my child into eating [healthy food] by mixing it with other food or disguising it.

5

E: Intrusive Control

Parent dictates how and what the child should eat. Parent tells their child what to do and expects their child to comply without question. (NEW)

37

I tell my child to eat [healthy food] or not eat [unhealthy food/drinks] but do not follow this myself.

5

  

39

I decide what my child should eat (./at meals/snacks).

6

  

40

I don’t allow my child to eat more than I think s/he should.

5

  

41

I make my child eat [healthy food] every day.

5

  

55

If my child eats more than usual at one meal, I try to restrict his/her eating at the next meal.

5

  

72

I make my child eat his/her fruit and vegetables first at mealtimes or snacks.

5

  

87

I criticize my child about the food s/he eats.

4

  

97

I decide when my child eats his/her meals and snacks.

5

  

Structure

49

I have to strongly encourage my child to eat foods that are good for him/her.

1

F: Prompt to Eat

Parent suggests to the child or prompts the child to eat food without being forceful and without consequence. There is no focus on eating beyond satiety. There is an emphasis on promoting to eat nutritious food. (NEW)

50

I encourage my child to eat all the food on his/her plate.

1

  

98

I try to convince my child to eat fruit or vegetables instead of cake or candy.

1

  

100

I tell my child to eat fruit and vegetables.

2

  

38

I monitor or keep track of the [healthy/unhealthy food/drinks] my child eats/drinks.

7

G: Rules and Limits

Parent has and makes known expectations, guidelines, or boundaries for how much or what kind of foods the child eats, maintains the timing or routine of meals, or promotes a certain order in which foods are eaten. The parent can monitor whether the child sticks to the rules. (modified from Vaughn et al.) [11]

44

I do not allow my child to eat or drink an hour before meals or after a certain hour of the day.

7

  

45

I ask others not to give my child unhealthy food (candy, sweets, salty snacks).

7

  

56

I limit or do not allow my child to eat/drink certain [unhealthy food/drinks].

6

  

59

I insist my child eat meals/snacks at the table.

8

  

74

If I allow my child an unhealthy meal/snack the next meal snack must be healthy.

6

  

99

If my child eats junk food, s/he must also include something healthy.

6

  

11

I allow my child to have whatever sweets and snacks s/he chooses at social occasions or to celebrate an achievement.

10

H: Permissive Feeding

“Parent allows child complete control of their eating, including timing and frequency of meals and snacks, and amount and type of foods eaten.” [11] Parent does not impose limits and will provide different foods for the child from what the rest of the family eats based on the child’s preferences and whims. Parent facilitates less nutritious food selection by keeping those in the home or taking the child place those foods are served.

14

I serve dessert to my child if s/he is no longer hungry for her/his main dish but is willing to eat dessert.

8

  

61

I take my child to eat at fast food places.

10

  

79

I serve/offer unhealthy foods [at meals/snacks/for dessert].

9

  

91

I offer my child seconds.

8

  

96

I eat/drink unhealthy foods/drinks with my child.

10

  

3

I give my child money to buy food (snacks, treats, or meals).

10

  

7

I allow my child to eat whenever s/he is hungry or shows signs of hunger.

10

  

8

I allow my child to buy [unhealthy food type] if s/he wants it as a snack or meal.

9

  

10

I serve what my child demands at meals.

9

  

12

I make or allow my child to make something else if s/he does not like what is served.

9

  

15

I give into my child’s food demands (./after saying no)

9

  

69

I allow my child to eat unhealthy when we are away from home (e.g., doing errands, driving to practices).

9

  

80

I allow my child to have seconds if s/he finishes foods from his/her plate at dinner.

8

  

81

I let my child eat unhealthy food whenever s/he wants.

9

  

82

I let my child substitute a food s/he does not like for one s/he likes.

10

  

107

I allow my child to skip meals.

8

  

110

I allow my child to eat unhealthy when we are on vacation.

9

  

27

I hide or intentionally keep less [healthful food/drinks] out of my child’s reach.

27

I: Food Accessibility/Availability

The amount and types of foods that a parent brings into the home; or how readily accessible the parent makes healthy and unhealthy foods in the home. Accessibility includes making foods ready and easy to eat, such as washing, cutting up and making food easy to see and reach for the child. (Modified from Vaughn et al.) [11]

28

I keep or have ready to eat fruits and vegetables in the fridge for my child to eat (e.g., pre-cut, clean).

10

  

29

I avoid having [unhealthy food/drinks] available at home.

10

  

75

I make sure that I have healthy foods in the house (./that my child likes).

10

  

76

I have unhealthy foods in the house (./that my child likes).

10

  

31

I include [healthy food] in my child’s lunch/snacks/meals (./that s/he likes).

10

J: Food Preparation

The planning, preparation and cooking methods that a parent employs when providing or serving meals and snacks, which may impact the healthfulness of the foods served. (Modified from Vaughn et al.) [11]

32

I balance all food groups in my child’s meals.

10

  

43

I plan and prepare my child’s meals/school lunches (./from scratch).

10

  

93

I prepare food in a low-fat or healthy way for my family.

11

  

94

I use pre-packaged, convenience food for meals.

10

  

26

I show enthusiasm about eating healthy foods.

14

K: Modeling

Eating specific behaviors the parent engages in themselves in front of child that may entice their child to emulate his/her eating behaviors, food choices, or amounts of food. It can either be in regards to nutritious foods or less nutritious foods. It is distinct from creating opportunities to role model eating behaviors such as having a family meal together.

34

I eat/drink [healthy food/drinks] in front of my child (./even if they are not my favorite).

11

  

35

I avoid eating/drinking [unhealthy food/drinks] in front of my child.

11

  

95

I take a second helping of food at dinner in front of my child.

11

  

30

I serve [healthy food] multiple times and in different ways to encourage my child to develop a taste for it.

12

L: Exposure to Variety/Selection

Parent exposes the child to nutritious and/or different food on a regular basis, includes variety of ways to prepare or eat nutritious food, and may allow choice for the child. (NEW)

71

I expose my child to a variety of fruits and vegetables (./since s/he was little).

12

  

78

I serve/offer [healthy food type] (./each day, for snacks, for a side-dish, for breakfast/ for dinner/for dessert)

12

  

92

To ensure my child eats a particular food (e.g., vegetables), I serve it with food my child likes.

12

  

108

I suggest places to eat out that have healthy selections for my child.

12

  

58

I try to minimize distractions during mealtimes (e.g., watching TV, answering phone calls, texting, playing with toys).

12

M: Meal Routines

“Parent implements consistency and predictability around meals and snacks with regard to their location, timing, presence of family members, conversational tone, and presence/absence of distractions.” [11]

60

I make sure my family eats together as often as possible.

11

  

4

I give my child small portions to get him/her to eat a particular food or new foods.

13

N: Redirection and Negotiation

“Parent engages with child to come to an agreement about what or how much the child will eat. Negotiation allows for resolution of different opinions between parent and child by finding an acceptable compromise.” [11] Parent uses tactics to take the child’s mind off of certain foods or drinks, provides them with alternatives, or shares food to decrease portion size. The tactics are not forceful and there are no consequences if not successful.

5

I offer/provide my child healthy options when s/he asks for unhealthy food or treats.

13

  

6

I negotiate with my child about how much unhealthy or healthy food s/he eats or drinks.

15

  

77

I encourage my child to eat [vegetables] by playing games with my child at meals times or by challenging him/her to eat it.

13

  

102

I encourage my child to drink water when s/he feels hungry.

13

  

103

To discourage my child from eating a particular food, I give him/her something else to do.

13

  

104

I encourage my child to control his/her intake of unhealthy food/drinks by sharing it.

13

  

Autonomy Support

1

I take into account the [healthy food/drinks] my child likes when shopping for food or preparing meals.

12

O: Child involvement

Parent acknowledges the child is an independent individual and takes into consideration the preferences and wants of the child by actively involving the child during meal planning, grocery shopping, meal preparation, or mealtime, with the goal to motivate more nutritious intake (modified from Vaughn et al.) [11]

2

I allow my child to serve him/herself and decide how much food s/he eats.

12

  

9

I let my child have a lot of say in what is eaten or prepared for meals.

14

  

13

I let my child season the vegetables, such as adding ketchup or cheese sauce, to make them taste better.

7

  

57

I talk to my child during meals.

14

  

62

I ask my child to suggest how s/he can eat more healthy food.

15

  

83

If my child does not want to taste a food, I do not try to make him/her eat it.

7

  

84

I let my child prepare his/her lunch/snacks.

14

  

85

I involve my child in meal and snack preparation.

14

  

86

I let my child choose fruits and vegetables while grocery shopping.

14

  

33

I encourage my child to eat [healthy food] by making the food interesting (e.g., cutting into shapes, preparing it in a variety of ways, or seasoning it).

14

P: Encourage Health Eating

Non-directive methods to suggest that the child try or eat a healthy food, but is not forceful and does not have consequences associated with child not following through. These non-directive methods include gentle verbal cues or reminders, non-verbal methods by making food more appealing or interesting for child. It also includes promoting self-regulation of intake by children to not eat beyond satiety. (Modified from Vaughn et al.) [11]

36

I tell my child how much I like a food to encourage him/her to eat it.

15

  

46

I encourage my child to eat/drink/try [healthy food] (./but do not force him/her to do so)

15

  

47

I encourage my child to eat/drink [healthy food/drinks] instead of or before [unhealthy food/drinks].

15

  

48

I tell my child that his/her friends/sibling(s)/favorite characters like the [healthy food] as a way to encourage him/her to eat it.

15

  

70

I remind/encourage my child to stop eating or to not take more food when s/he feels full.

15

  

90

I praise my child for eating healthy food or fruit and vegetables.

16

  

101

I help my child set a goal to eat more fruit and vegetables.

15

  

63

I persuade my child to eat healthy food by explaining why it’s important (e.g., you will feel better, good for you, you’ll grow big and strong, do better at school).

16

Q: Education/Reasoning

Explanations given by parent to child to educate the child about foods’ nutritional qualities, such as the benefits of eating healthy foods or the consequences of eating unhealthy ones. Parent uses logic or explanations to persuade the child to change his or her eating behavior (modified form Vaughn et al.) [11]

64

I teach my child that certain food/drinks should only be consumed in moderation.

16

  

65

I tell my child that certain food or drinks are not good for his/her health or teeth.

16

  

66

I use mealtimes to teach my child about healthy eating.

16

  

67

I teach my child about healthy eating by reading food labels and playing educational games.

16

  

109

I give my child ideas on how to eat healthier (e.g., eating more fruits and vegetables).

16

  
  1. aThis refers to the cluster the item was assigned based on the original 16-cluster solution identified by the cluster analysis. This is visually depicted in Fig. 2 as the gray shadow clusters and illustrates how many subjective changes were made to generate the proposed 17 cluster solution