Table 2 Narrative Summary of Studies Examining Food Parenting Practices and Child Snacking (n = 47)

 Boots, 2015, [31]

Cross-sectional study of n = 611 highly educated mothers of children aged 2–7 years in Australia.

●

●

Restriction subscale of the CFQ. Covert Control Scale developed by Ogden et al. Authoritative Parenting Index (parenting style).

Parent report using 11-item FFQ adapted from existing tool to assess healthy (e.g. fruit, vegetable, cheese) and unhealthy (e.g. chips) snack foods.(Giles & Ireland, 1996)

Good

Higher restriction and lower covert control (e.g. manage the environment rather than the child) was positively associated with unhealthy snack intake. Lower restriction and higher covert control was positively associated with healthy snack intake.

 Campbell, 2006, [34]

Cross-sectional study of n = 560 caregivers of children aged 5–6 years among demographically mixed schools in Melbourne, Australia.

●

Specific items taken from the CFQ to examine restriction, monitoring, and pressure to eat.

Parent report using 56-item FFQ developed based on data from national survey.

Good

Parental pressure to eat was positively associated with savory and sweet snack food intake. Restriction and monitoring was not associated with snack intake.

 Campbell, 2007, [35]

Cross-sectional study of n = 347 adolescents aged 12–13 years and their parents in Western Sydney, Australia.

●

●

Items adapted from CFQ for adolescents to assess perception of monitoring, rewards, and pressure. Some items developed for the study (e.g. food availability). Parenting style using existing tool from Baumrind et al.

Child report using 56-item FFQ developed based on data from national survey.

Good

Parenting style not associated with child reported snack consumption. Availability of unhealthy food in the home was positively associated with savory snack consumption.

 Couch, 2014, [37]

Cross-sectional study of n = 699 parent-child pairs, with children aged 6–11 years from Washington and California.

●

Multiple items/scales adapted from five existing tools (including CFQ) to measure feeding constructs like restriction, pressure to eat, permissiveness, and food availability

Children aged 8 and older self-reported dietary intake using three days of 24-h recalls, averaged to assess food group servings. Children 6–8 had parents help them with self-report. Sweets and savory snacks were identified as all high-energy, low nutrient dense solid foods.

Good

Food parenting practices not associated with child reported intake of sweet and savory snacks. Home availability of healthy foods positively associated with snack intake.

 Dickens, 2014, [38]

Longitudinal study of n = 93 parent-child pairs, with children aged 17–18 years from South East England.

●

Pressure to eat assessed using the CFQ. Items taken from Ogden’s measure of overt/covert control of food.

Child report using FFQ items adapted from multiple tools to assess unhealthy snacks.

Good

No aspects of parental control (overt, covert, or pressure to eat) were associated with teen’s reported intake of unhealthy snacks.

 Fisher, 2002, [43]

Longitudinal study of n = 192 non-Hispanic white girls and their parents in Pennsylvania, assessed when the girls were 5 and 7 years of age.

●

Restriction subscale of the CFQ.

Observed snack food EAH; protocol used in a laboratory setting.

Good

Parent report of restrictive feeding practices at age 5 was positively associated with observed child snack EAH at age 7.

 Harris, 2014, [48]

Experimental study of n = 37 mother-child pairs in Australia, with children aged 3–4 years.

●

Restriction, pressure to eat, and monitoring subscales of CFQ.

Weighed food intake of items consumed in the laboratory were used to assess child snack EAH.

Weak

Parental restriction and monitoring were not associated with snack EAH for boys or girls. For boys only, pressure to eat was positively associated with observed snack EAH.

 Jansen, 2007, [50]

Experimental study of n = 74 parent-child pairs among children aged 5–7 years in the Netherlands.

●

Restriction subscale of the CFQ.

Weighed food intake of sweet and salty snacks consumed in the laboratory were used to assess child snack consumption.

Good

Parental feeding restriction at home was positively associated with observed energy intake of snacks.

 Liang, 2016, [52]

Cross-sectional study of n = 117 parents and their overweight children aged 7–12 years in Minnesota.

●

●

Restriction, pressure to eat, and monitoring subscales of CFQ. Parenting assessed using three dimensions from the Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory: acceptance vs. rejection, psychological control vs. autonomy, and firm vs. lax control.

Weighed food intake of snack items consumed in the laboratory were used to assess child snack EAH.

Good

Parent monitoring of food intake was positively associated with observed sweet snack EAH. Restriction, pressure to eat, and parenting dimensions were not significantly associated with snack intake.

 Loth, 2016, [53]

Cross-sectional study of n = 2383 parent-adolescent pairs (children aged 12–16 years) in Minnesota.

●

Selected items from the restriction subscale of the CFQ. Items developed for the study related to parent modeling. Snack availability assessed using measure from Boutelle et al.

Child report using 149-item Youth and Adolescent FFQ, with a focus on low nutrient, energy dense foods defined as snacks.

Good

Parental food restriction was positively associated with child reported snack food intake. Healthy home food availability and parental modeling of healthy eating were negatively associated with snack food intake.

 McGowan, 2012, [56]

Cross sectional study of n = 434 primary caregivers of children aged 2–5 years from preschools in London, UK.

●

Parental monitoring using a subscale of the CFQ. Praise/encouragement of foods assessed using a subscale of the Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire. Home availability of snacks assessed using binary items developed for the study.

Parent report using food frequency items assessed “non-core snack foods”, defined as sweet or savoury snacks consumed between meals, and were adapted from existing Australian measures.

Good

Parental monitoring was negatively associated with child snack intake. Home availability was positively associated with snack intake. There was no association between encouragement and snack intake.

 Moens, 2007, [57]

Experimental study of n = 52 parents and their children (half overweight/normal weight), aged 7–13 years in Belgium.

●

Restriction, pressure to eat, and monitoring subscales of the CFQ. Parental modeling of dietary behaviors assessed using the Parental Dietary Modelling Scale.

Observed snack EAH in a home setting assessed using weight in grams and as a binary outcome (“yes” or “no” for consuming a snack).

Moderate

Parent report of restriction, pressure, monitoring and modeling of dietary behaviors had no association with observed child snack EAH.

 Reina, 2013, [62]

Cross-sectional study of n = 90 adolescents aged 13–17 years in Washington, DC.

●

Adolescent version of the CFQ was used and assessed three parent feeding subscales: restriction, concern, and monitoring.

Weighed food intake of snack items consumed in the laboratory over 2 days was used to assess snack EAH.

Good

Parental restriction and concern about child eating were positively associated with observed adolescent snack EAH. Parental monitoring was not associated with snack intake.

 Rhee, 2015, [63]

Cross-sectional data collected during an intervention weight control study of n = 79 parent-child pairs, with normal and overweight children aged 8–12 years in California and Rhode Island.

●

●

Restriction, pressure to eat, and monitoring subscales of CFQ. Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory assessed parenting dimensions

Parent report using Family Eating and Activity Habits Questionnaire (Golan, 1998) assessed frequency of “excessive snacking behavior”.

Fair

Restrictive feeding was positively associated with excessive snacking behavior among normal weight children. Firm control parenting style was associated with decreased odds of excessive snacking in the overweight group. There was no association between parental monitoring or pressure to eat and snack intake for either group.

 Sleddens, 2014, [65]

Longitudinal study of n = 1654 parent-child pairs, with children aged 6 and 8 years in the Netherlands

●

●

Food parenting styles assessed using items adapted from a variety of tools, including the CFQ; 8 total constructs were assessed (e.g. emotional feeding, covert control, pressure to eat). The Comprehensive General Parenting Questionnaire assessed 5 parenting constructs (e.g. nurturance, behavioral control).

Parent report using validated FFQ items for Dutch children assessed sugar-sweetened and energy-dense food products consumed between meals. Multiple measures cited.

Good

Emotional feeding and pressure to eat were positively associated with increased energy-dense snack intake over time. Covert control was negatively associated with snack intake; this relationship was strongest among children reared in a positive parenting context. Monitoring, encouragement, and restriction were not significantly associated.

 Van Strien, 2009, [69]

Cross-sectional study of n = 943 children aged 7–12 years in the Netherlands.

●

A children’s version of the CFQ, using two subscales: restriction and pressure to eat.

Child report using food frequency items assessed consumption of sweet and/or savory snacks. Source of measure undefined.

Good

Perceived maternal restriction to eat was negatively associated with snack intake; pressure to eat was not associated with child snack intake.

 Wijtzes, 2013, [72]

Cross-sectional study of n = 2814 mothers of 4-year-old children in the Netherlands.

●

Restriction, pressure to eat, and monitoring subscales of CFQ.

Parent report using food frequency items assessing child intake of “high calorie snacks”. Source of measure undefined.

Good

Restriction and monitoring mediated the relationship between maternal education and child snack intake; restriction was positively associated with snack intake regardless of maternal level of education.

 Entin,2014, [39]

Longitudinal study of n = 63 mother-child pairs, with children aged 5–6 years in Southern Israel.

●

CFPQ assessed 12 practices, categorized as healthy (e.g. availability of healthy food, involvement) and unhealthy (e.g. food as reward, restriction to promote health).

Parent report using 110-item FFQ developed for young children; adapted from existing tool used with adults (Shahar, 2003).

Good

Using food as a reward, food restriction to promote health, and home availability of healthy foods were positively associated with child consumption of junk food, sweets, or snacks.

 Farrow, 2015, [40]

Experimental study of n = 41 parent-child pairs, with children aged 2–5 years in East Midlands, United Kingdom.

●

CFPQ assessed food as a reward, for emotion regulation, restriction for weight, restriction for health, and pressure to eat.

Observational protocol of child snack food EAH under conditions of negative emotions.

Moderate

Parent use of food as a reward and restriction of food for health reasons when children were 3–5 years old was positively associated with children consuming more snack under conditions of negative emotion at ages 5–7 years.

 Kiefner-Burmeister, 2014, [13]

Cross-sectional study of n = 171 mothers of children aged 3–6 years from a nationally representative sample in the United States.

●

CFPQ subscales: feeding for emotion regulation, food as a reward, and allowing child to control food choices/intake; classified as “Negative Feeding Practices”.

Parent report using FFQ developed for the study to assess 5 different items: high-energy drinks, candy/sweets, salty snacks, vegetables, and fruit.

Good

The use of Negative Feeding Practices was positively 2associated with mothers’ report of children consuming unhealthy drinks and snacks, despite parents’ reported healthy feeding goals.

 Ayala, 2007, [29]

Cross-sectional study of n = 167 Mexican American children aged 8–18 years and their mothers in San Diego, California.

●

Family support measure developed by Sorensen et al.

Child report using Block fat and fiber screeners (Block, 2000) with items added by authors regarding child snacking.

Good

Greater family support for healthful eating (e.g. praise, available foods) was negatively associated with child daily consumption of unhealthy snacks.

 Ball, 2009, [30]

Cross-sectional study of n = 2529 students aged 12–15 years in Victoria, Australia.

●

Home food availability assessed using an existing tool and vegetable intake among adolescents: findings from Project EAT. Items developed for this study included mothers’ social support for healthy eating.

Child report using existing FFQ (Marks, 2001) assessed consumption of energy-dense snack foods.

Good

Availability of energy-dense snacks at home was positively associated with energy-dense snack food intake; mothers’ social support for healthy eating was negatively associated with snack intake.

 Brown, 2008, [32]

Cross-sectional study of n = 518 parents of children aged 4–7 years from primary schools in southern England.

●

●

Individual items selected from a variety of existing measures of parental control practices, overt/covert control, and pressure to eat. Multiple measures cited.

Parent report using FFQ measuring healthy vs. unhealthy snack intake adapted from multiple existing questionnaires and market research data.

Good

Lower levels of snack covert control and higher levels of pressure to eat were positively associated with unhealthy snack intake.

 Corsini, 2010, [36]

Cross-sectional study using two samples from South Australia: n = 175 mothers of toddlers aged 18–24 months and n = 216 mothers of children aged 4–5 years.

●

Toddler Snack Food Feeding Questionnaire (developed for this study) measuring parental feeding practices used to manage toddlers’ access to and consumption of snack foods (e.g. Rules, Flexibility, Allow Access, Self-efficacy and Child’s Attraction)

Parent report using adapted to be appropriate for toddlers from the Cancer Council Food Frequency Questionnaire Giles & Ireland, 1996).

Good

Among parents of toddlers, parent feeding flexibility, allowing access, and a child’s attraction to snacks were all positively associated with increased frequency of child snack food consumption. Rules to manage snacks had a weak negative association with frequency of child snack intake.

 Gebremariam, 2016, [44]

Cross-sectional study of n = 742 adolescents (mean age 13.6 years) in Norway.

●

Items adapted from various measures assessing perceived parental rules, accessibility of snacks, and parental role modeling of healthy eating. Multiple measures cited.

Child report of snacks, fatty snacks, and sweets assessed using food frequency items developed for study.

Good

Snack accessibility and parental role modeling were positively associated with intake of snacks (times/week). Perceived parental rules about snacking were negatively associated with snack intake.

 Gevers, 2015, [45]

Cross-sectional study of n = 888 parents of children aged 4–12 years in the Netherlands.

●

Comprehensive Snack Parenting Questionnaire (CSPQ), assessing food parenting behavior clusters related to snack intake. Citation for tool was unpublished.

Parent report using FFQs about child intake of energy-dense foods adapted from a validated Dutch food questionnaire (Brants, 2006).

Good

“High involvement and supportive” cluster was found to have lowest energy-dense snack food intake by children. Children of parents from the “low covert control and non-rewarding” and “low involvement and indulgent” clusters consumed significantly higher snack food intake. “High involvement and supportive” was found to be the most favorable in terms of children’s intake.

 Hendy, 2008, [49]

Cross-sectional study of n = 2008 mothers of children in 1st-4th grade (mean age: 8.3 years) in Pennsylvania; analysis part of a larger study to develop a tool to asses parental mealtime behaviors.

●

Parent Mealtime Action Scale developed in this study identified multiple dimensions of parental feeding (e.g. snack limits, unhealthy modeling, positive persuasion, too many food choices, fat reduction/restriction, etc.)

Parent report using FFQ about child’s daily intake of 12 commonly consumed high fat/sugar/salty snack foods (Cusatis & Shannon, 1996).

Good

Modeling consumption of unhealthy snacks, allowing excessive food choices, and positive persuasion were all positively associated with intake of snacks. Restriction of child’s intake/consumption of fatty foods was negatively associated with child snack intake.

 Luszczynska, 2013, [54]

Cross-sectional study of n = 2764 adolescents aged 10–17 years from schools in the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, and theUnited Kingdom.

●

Selected items based upon existing measures assessed perceived parental pressure to limit snack consumption and snack accessibility. Multiple measures cited.

Child report using combined FFQ measures of sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake with measures of snack intake to study snacking as one combined variable, “Snack/SSB intake”. Multiple measures cited.

Good

At-home accessibility of snacks/SSBs was positively associated with consumption. Parental pressure to limit snacks/SSBs was negatively associated with consumption. These factors were all mediated by the child’s self-reported ability to self-regulate their snack intake.

 Martens, 2010, [55]

Cross-sectional analysis of data collected as part of an intervention study of n = 502 parent-adolescent pairs (mean age 12.7 years) in the Netherlands

●

●

Parenting style was assessed using dimensions of involvement and strictness based upon an existing tool. Food rules and snack home availability were assessed using items from an existing tool. Multiple measures cited.

Parent and child report using one question from a validated tools to assess “sweets/savory snacks” (Van Assema, 2001).

Good

There was no significant association between parenting style, food rules about snacks, or snack food availability/accessibility and adolescent self-reported snack intake.

 Palfreyman, 2012, [59]

Cross-sectional study of n = 484 mothers with a child aged 18 months - 8 years in the United Kingdom.

●

Parental modeling of eating behaviors were assessed using the Parental Modelling of Eating Behaviours Scale developed for this study.

Parent report using adapted existing FFQ (Cooke et al., 2003), to include additional categories such as “savoury snacks”.

Good

Verbal monitoring of healthy eating behaviors (e.g. encouragement, talking about foods) was not associated with child snack intake. Parental perception of a child mimicking their undesirable eating habits (labelled as “unintentional modeling”) was positively associated with savory snack intake.

 Pearson, 2010, [60]

Cross-sectional study of n = 328 adolescents aged 12–16 years in East Midlands, United Kingdom.

●

Items assessing parenting styles using the four dimensions of parenting (e.g. authoritative, indulgent). Multiple measures were adapted and cited.

Child report using 30-item validated Youth/AdolescentFood Frequency Questionnaire (Rockett et al., 1997) to assess “unhealthy snacks”.

Good

Parenting style significantly associated with the frequency of snack intake among their children. Adolescents who described their parents as authoritative or authoritarian consumed fewer unhealthy snacks than peers who described parents as neglectful.

 Rodenburg, 2014, [64]

Longitudinal study of n = 1275 parent-child pairs, with children aged 7–10 years in the Netherlands.

●

●

Parenting style assessed using an adapted instrument to assess Support, Behavioral Control, and Psychological Control. Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire assessed instrumental feeding, emotional feeding, encouragement to eat, and control over eating. Multiple measures cited.

Parent report using validated FFQ items assessed energy-dense snack intake servings per week, collected at baseline and one year later. Multiple measures cited.

Good

Instrumental feeding and emotional feeding were positively related to increased energy-dense snack intake over one year. Encouragement, overt/covert control were negatively associated with energy-dense snack intake over time.

 Sleddens, 2010, [66]

Cross-sectional study of n = 135 parents of children aged 6–7 years in the Netherlands

●

The Parental Feeding Style Questionnaire translated into Dutch assessed four styles: instrumental feeding, emotional feeding, encouragement to eat, and control over eating.

Parent report using validated FFQ items assessed sugar-sweetened and energy-dense food products consumed between meals. Multiple measures cited.

Good

Instrumental feeding (e.g. food as a reward) and emotional feeding (e.g. feeding in response to child’s feelings) styles were positively related to children’s snack consumption. Encouragement to eat was negatively associated with children’s snacking behavior.

 Vaughn, 2016, [70]

Cross-sectional study of n = 129 parents of children aged 3–12 years in North Carolina; data part of the development and psychometric testing of a questionnaire.

●

Home-STEAD family food practices survey assessed coercive control, autonomy support, and structure.

Parent report using food frequency items assessed weekly consumption of snacks and sweets. Source of measure undefined.

Good

Greater parental rules and limits around unhealthy foods, planning and preparation of healthy meals, and modeling were associated with decreased consumption of sweets and snacks. Frequent use of television during meals was significantly associated with increased consumption of sweets and snacks.

 Blaine, 2015, [18]

Cross-sectional study of n = 271 parents of children aged 2–12 years in low-income Massachusetts communities.

●

Items developed for study assessed the frequency with which snacks (not defined) were offered to children for nutritive (e.g. growth/feeding) and non-nutritive (e.g. behavior management, reward) reasons.

Parent report using items taken from validated FFQ measures of preschooler diets assessing frequency of different food groups, analyzed as compliance with dietary guidelines. Multiple measures cited.

Good

Offering snacks for non-nutritive reasons (e.g. behavior management, rewards) was negatively associated with adherence to dietary guidelines (e.g. sugar sweetened beverage consumption). Parents provided more snacks for non-nutritive reasons than for nutritive ones; younger children received more non-nutritive snacks than older children.

 Brown, 2004, [33]

Cross-sectional study of n = 112 parent-child pairs, with children aged 9–13 years recruited from schools in southern England.

●

Source of measure undefined. Parents completed items assessing attempts to control child’s food intake and using food as a tool for controlling behavior.

Child self-reported intake of both healthy (e.g. grapes, toast, apples) and unhealthy snacks (e.g. chocolate, crisps). Source of measure undefined.

Good

Parent attempts to control a child’s diet were positively associated with higher intakes of child reported intake of both healthy and unhealthy snack foods.

 Fisher, 1999, [41]

Experimental study of n = 71 parent-child pairs in Pennsylvania, with children aged 3–5 years.

●

Items developed for study assessed restriction of snack foods; Interviews with children assessed perceived restricted access to food.

Weighed intake of unrestricted snack foods offered in an observed laboratory setting using a protocol.

Moderate

Maternal restriction of access to snack foods among girls was positive associated with child intake of these foods when free access was provided. Null findings observed among fathers or male children.

 Fisher, 1999, [42]

Experimental study of n = 31 parent-child pairs in Pennsylvania, with children aged 3–5 years.

●

Items developed for study assessed restriction of snack foods. Source of measure undefined.

Child behavioral response and selection of restricted snacks foods observed using a protocol.

Moderate

Parental self-reported restriction of children’s access to snack foods was associated with increased child behavioral response (e.g. requests for the food, attempts to obtain it, or comments about liking it) to the food compared with similar periods in which the snack food was freely available.

 Gubbels, 2009, [47]

Cross-sectional study of n = 2578 parents of 2-year old children in the Netherlands.

●

Parents were asked if they prohibited children from eating any of the following snack foods: ‘Sweets’, ‘Cookies’, ‘Cake’, ‘Soft drinks’, ‘Crisps’ and ‘Sugar’. Source of measure undefined.

Parent report using 65-item FFQ assessing daily consumption of specific foods. Source of measure undefined.

Good

Parent restriction of snack foods was negatively associated with unhealthy snack food consumption and positively associated with fruit and vegetable consumption

 Karimi-Shahanjarini, 2012, [51]

Cross-sectional study of n = 739 female adolescents aged 12–15 years in Iran.

●

Items developed for the study assessed perceived parental control over junk food consumption (e.g. “My parents tell me how much junk food I may consume”).

Child report using modified Iranian FFQ (Mirmiran et al., 2007) assessing snacking behaviors over a 1-week period and classified into healthy and unhealthy snacks, or “junk food”.

Good

Adolescents who perceived stricter parental control reported less frequent consumption of “junk food”, or unhealthy snacks. The relationship was partially mediated by the child’s perceived own behavioral control over snack consumption.

 Ogden, 2006, [58]

Cross-sectional study of n = 297 parents of children aged 4–11 years in Southern England.

●

New measure of parental overt control (detectable by child) and covert control (undetectable by child) of child eating adapted from previous tool (Brown & Ogden, 2004).

Parent report of child intake of healthy (e.g. grapes, yogurt, toast) and unhealthy (e.g. sweets, crisps) snacks using existing tool (Brown & Ogden, 2004)

Good

Greater covert control was associated with less child intake of unhealthy snacks. Greater overt control associated with greater child intake of healthy snacks.

 Pearson, 2010, [61]

Longitudinal study over a 2-year period of n = 1850 adolescents aged 12–15 years in Victoria, Australia.

●

At baseline, perceived modeling of healthy eating by child’s mother was assessed using items developed for the study. Perceived home availability of snack foods and family support for healthy eating were assessed using an existing tool (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2003).

Child report of change in energy dense snack consumption assessed using a validated FFQ (Marks et al., 2001) at baseline and 2-year follow-up.

Good

Home availability of snacks at baseline was associated with increased energy-dense snack intake after 2 years; family support for healthy eating was inversely associated. Maternal modeling of healthy eating was not associated with a change in snack intake.

 van Ansem, 2015, [67]

Cross-sectional study of n = 1203 parent-child pairs, with children aged 8–12 years in the Netherlands.

●

One binary item assessed presence of snack consumption rules (e.g. limits on number of snacks) adapted from existing measures. Items adapted from the Home Environment Survey assessed home availability of snacks. Multiple measures cited.

Child report using validated FFQ assessed energy-dense foods consumed between meals. Children also reported on purchasing snacks outside of the home using items developed for the study. Multiple measures cited.

Good

Home availability of snacks was positively associated with child snack consumption. Parent rules on snack consumption were not associated with child snack intake.

 van Assema, 2007, [68]

Cross-sectional study of n = 502 parent-child pairs, with children aged 12–14 years in the Netherlands.

●

Three binary items developed for the study assessed the presence of parent-imposed snack rules about number of snacks, timing of snacks, and which snacks child may eat.

Child report using items adapted from validated FFQs assessing sweet and savory snack consumption. Multiple measures cited.

Good

Presence of rules regarding the quantity and timing of child snack consumption was positively associated with the child’s snack intake, based upon child self-report.

 Verstraeten, 2016, [71]

Cross-sectional study of n = 784 adolescents aged 10–16 years in southern Ecuador.

●

Two items developed for study based on qualitative data assessed child report of parental permissiveness (e.g. fast food/snacks allowed any time).

Child report using 2 days of 24-h recalls with “unhealthy snacks” identified as foods high in sodium, fat, or sugar.

Good

Parental permissiveness (e.g. no limits) was not associated with unhealthy snacking among adolescents.

 Xu, 2013, [73]

Cross-sectional study of n = 242 first-time mothers and their 2-year-old children in Sydney, Australia.

●

Parenting style was assessed using two constructs: parental warmth (e.g. affectionate behaviors) and parental hostility towards child (e.g. irritable and angry behaviors). Source of measure undefined.

Parent report using items from the New South Wales Child Health Survey identifying snacks, which were defined as hot chips, crisps, confectionery.

Good

High levels of parental hostility were positively associated with children’s snack consumption after adjusting for household income; parental warmth was not associated with snacking.