Table 6 Summary of the findings from the studies assessing biomarkers

Buman et al. [48]

Adults (n = 2185 – full sample; n = 923 – fasting sub-sample) from the 2005–2006 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, USA; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – self report

Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, HDL, C-reactive protein, LDL, plasma glucose, insulin, triglycerides, HOMA-S, HOMA-β

Mekary et al. [12] / 30 min

Sex, race, marital status, education, work status, income, smoking, depressive symptoms, 24-h dietary recalls estimating intakes of total energy, saturated fat, caffeine, and alcohol, a general health rating, diagnosis of cancer, malignancy, CVD, or diabetes, and current use of diabetic, antihypertensive, lipidemic, or other CVD medication.

RR (95% CI)

HDL cholesterol

Sleep → MVPA: 1.044 (1.019, 1.070)

SB → MVPA: 1.046 (1.028, 1.065)

LPA → MVPA: 1.043 (1.023, 1.064)

Sleep → LPA: 1.001 (0.994, 1.008)

SB → LPA: 1.003 (0.998, 1.008)

SB → sleep: 1.002 (0.994, 1.011)

Triglycerides

Sleep → MVPA: 0.915 (0.851, 0.983)

SB → MVPA: 0.914 (0.855, 0.977)

LPA → MVPA: 0.931 (0.869, 0.998)

Sleep → LPA: 0.983 (0.964, 1.002)

SB → LPA: 0.981 (0.972, 0.991)

SB → sleep: 0.999 (0.982, 1.016)

Insulin

Sleep → MVPA: 0.893 (0.803, 0.994)

SB → MVPA: 0.874 (0.786, 0.970)

LPA → MVPA: 0.895 (0.801, 1.000)

Sleep → LPA: 0.998 (0.969, 1.029)

SB → LPA: 0.976 (0.962, 0.991)

SB → sleep: 0.978 (0.957, 1.000)

Carson et al. [49]

Children and youth aged 6–17 years (n = 4169 – full sample; n = 1242 – fasting sub-sample) from the Canadian Health Measures Survey, Canada; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – self report

BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, behavioural strengths and difficulties, CRF – full sample. Triglycerides,

HDL, C-reactive protein, and insulin – fasting subsample.

Chastin et al. [13] / 10 min

Age, sex, and highest household education.

Reallocating 10 min of MVPA to SB, LPA or sleep, resulted in a 5.1, 1.2, and 1.1% increase in BMI z score, respectively.

Reallocating 10 min of SB, LPA or sleep, to MVPA resulted in a less than 1% decrease in BMI z score.

Similar effects were noted across all health indicators.

Chastin et al. [13]

Adults (n = 1937) from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005–2006 cycle, USA; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – self report

Blood pressure, plasma glucose and insulin, HDL, C-reactive protein, LDL, triglycerides

Mekary et al. [12] / 10 min

Age, sex, ethnicity/race, self-reported health, diagnosis of health conditions, educational level, social economic status, smoking status, alcohol consumption, calorie intake, caffeine and fat, medications for diabetes and/or high blood pressure.

Reallocating 10 min of LPA or MVPA to sleep was associated with positive effects on systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Reallocating 10 min of sleep to MVPA was associated with positive effects on HDL.

Reallocating 10 min of MVPA with sleep was associated with positive effects on C-reactive protein.

Reallocating 10 min of MVPA with sleep or SB was associated with detrimental effects on LDL, triglycerides, glucose and insulin level and HOMA. Similar, but smaller effects were noted when 10 min of SB was reallocated to LPA or sleep.

Reallocating 10 min of MVPA to sleep or LPA had a detrimental effect on both obesity markers, with stronger magnitude when LPA replaced MVPA.

Reallocating 10 min of SB or sleep to LPA was associated with more favourable effects on LDL, triglycerides, glucose, insulin, and HOMA. The effects were more pronounced when 10 min of LPA replaced sleep than SB.

Edwardson et al. [24]

Adults identified as being at high risk of impaired glucose regulation (n = 435) from the Walking Away from Diabetes randomized controlled trial, UK; cross-sectional

SB, standing, stepping – thigh-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Fasting glucose, 2-h glucose, fasting insulin, 2-h insulin, HOMA-IS, Matsuda-ISI

Mekary et al. [12] / 30 min

Age, sex, smoking status, family history of type 2 diabetes, ethnicity, β-blockers, lipid-lowering medication and activPAL waking wear time (model 1), and waist circumference (model 2).

β (95% CI)

Model 1

Fasting glucose

Prolonged SB → short SB: 1.00 (0.99, 1.00)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)

Short SB → standing: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

Short SB → stepping: 0.99 (0.98, 1.00)

2-h glucose

Prolonged SB → short SB: 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.00 (0.98, 1.01)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.94 (0.92, 0.97)

Short SB → standing: 1.00 (0.99, 1.00)

Short SB → stepping: 0.95 (0.92, 0.97)

Fasting insulin

Prolonged SB → short SB: 0.96 (0.93, 0.99)

Prolonged SB → standing: 0.95 (0.92, 0.98)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.89 (0.84, 0.95)

Short SB → standing: 0.98 (0.95, 1.01)

Short SB → stepping: 0.93 (0.88, 0.98)

2-h insulin

Prolonged SB → short SB: 0.97 (0.92, 1.02)

Prolonged SB → standing: 0.94 (0.90, 0.99)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.85 (0.78, 0.92)

Short SB → standing: 0.98 (0.94, 1.02)

Short SB → stepping: 0.87 (0.81, 0.93)

HOMA-IS

Prolonged SB → short SB: 1.04 (1.01, 1.07)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.06 (1.02, 1.10)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 1.15 (1.06, 1.26)

Short SB → standing: 1.02 (0.99, 1.05)

Short SB → stepping: 1.10 (1.03, 1.17)

Matsuda-ISI

Prolonged SB → short SB: 1.03 (0.99, 1.07)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.06 (1.01, 1.11)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 1.22 (1.09, 1.35)

Short SB → standing: 1.02 (0.99, 1.06)

Short SB → stepping: 1.17 (1.07, 1.27)

Model 2

Fasting glucose

Prolonged SB → short SB: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.99 (0.98, 1.00)

Short SB → standing: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

Short SB → stepping: 1.00 (0.98, 1.01)

2-h glucose

Prolonged SB → short SB: 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.00 (0.98, 1.02)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.95 (0.92, 0.98)

Short SB → standing: 1.00 (0.99, 1.00)

Short SB → stepping: 0.95 (0.93, 0.98)

Fasting insulin

Prolonged SB → short SB: 0.96 (0.94, 0.98)

Prolonged SB → standing: 0.96 (0.93, 0.99)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.93 (0.88, 0.98)

Short SB → standing: 0.99 (0.96, 1.02)

Short SB → stepping: 0.96 (0.92, 1.00)

2-h insulin

Prolonged SB → short SB: 0.97 (0.92, 1.02)

Prolonged SB → standing: 0.95 (0.91, 1.00)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 0.87 (0.80, 0.94)

Short SB → standing: 0.99 (0.95, 1.03)

Short SB → stepping: 0.90 (0.83, 0.98)

HOMA-IS

Prolonged SB → short SB: 1.04 (1.01, 1.07)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.04 (1.01, 1.07)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 1.09 (1.01, 1.17)

Short SB → standing: 1.00 (0.97, 1.03)

Short SB → stepping: 1.05 (0.99, 1.11)

Matsuda-ISI

Prolonged SB → short SB: 1.03 (0.98, 1.08)

Prolonged SB → standing: 1.05 (1.01, 1.09)

Prolonged SB → stepping: 1.16 (1.05, 1.28)

Short SB → standing: 1.01 (0.96, 1.05)

Short SB → stepping: 1.12 (1.03, 1.22)

Ekblom-Bak et al. [51]

Adults (n = 836) from the Swedish Cardio Pulmonary bioImage Study, Sweden; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MPA, VPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Triglyceride levels, HDL, blood pressure and glucose levels.

Mekary et al. [12] / 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min

Age, sex, education level, smoking habits, perceived psychological stress, energy intake and wear time.

OR (95% CI)

10-min reallocation

High triglyceride levels

SB → LPA: 0.97 (0.94, 0.99)

SB → MPA: 0.91 (0.83, 0.99)

SB → VPA: 0.51 (0.33, 0.79)

Low HDL

SB → LPA: 0.95 (0.92, 0.98)

SB → MPA: 0.91 (0.82, 1.01)

SB → VPA: 0.34 (0.18, 0.65)

High blood pressure

SB → LPA: 1.00 (0.97, 1.02)

SB → MPA: 0.92 (0.85, 0.99)

SB → VPA: 0.77 (0.58, 1.04)

High glucose

SB → LPA: 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)

SB → MPA: 0.97 (0.91, 1.03)

SB → VPA: 0.88 (0.73, 1.07)

Ekblom-Bak et al. [52]

Adults (n = 654) from the Swedish Cardio Pulmonary bioImage Study, Sweden; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, glucose, triglycerides, HDL

Mekary et al. [12] / 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min

Sex, age, education, smoking, perceived psychosocial stress.

RR (95% CI)

30 min reallocation

Fasting glucose

SB → LPA: 0.998 (0.995, 1.001)

SB → MVPA: 0.991 (0.983, 0.999)

Fasting insulin

SB → LPA: 0.970 (0.954, 0.987)

SB → MVPA: 0.884 (0.844, 0.927)

HOMA-IR

SB → LPA: 0.969 (0.951, 0.987)

SB → MVPA: 0.876 (0.832, 0.923)

Fasting glucose (<  6.0 mmol·l-1)

SB → LPA: 0.980 (0.961, 0.999)

SB → MVPA: 0.894 (0.846, 0.945)

Fasting glucose (≥ 6.0 mmol·l-1)

SB → LPA: 0.937 (0.906, 0.969)

SB → MVPA: 0.889 (0.818, 0.967)

Reallocating 5 to 120 min from SB to MVPA was associated with positive effects

HOMA-IR (for participants with lower waist circumferences) and across all time lengths for participants with higher waist circumferences.

Reallocating 1 to 120 min from SB to LPA or MVPA was associated with positive effects on HOMA-IR levels (for participants with low fitness).

Reallocating 1 to 120 min from SB to MVPA was associated with positive effects

HOMA-IR levels (for participants with high levels of fitness).

Reallocating 1 to 120 min from SB to LPA or MVPA was associated with positive effects on HOMA-IR levels (for participants with high glucose levels).

Reallocating 1 to 120 min from SB to MVPA was associated with positive effects

HOMA-IR levels (for participants with normal glucose levels).

Falconer et al. [53]

Adults with type 2 diabetes (n = 519) from the Early Activity in Diabetes study, UK; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

HDL

Mekary et al. [12] / 30 min

Age, sex, ethnic group, IMD score, accelerometer wear time, relevant diabetes or lipid-lowering drugs.

β (95% CI)

HDL

SB bouts → SB nonbouts: 0.01 (− 0.02, 0.03)

SB bouts → LPA: 0.02 (0.01, 0.03)

SB bouts → MVPA: 0.03 (− 0.01, 0.08)

SB nonbouts → LPA: 0.01 (− 0.01, 0.04)

SB nonbouts → MVPA: 0.03 (− 0.02, 0.07)

LPA → MVPA: 0.02 (− 0.03, 0.06)

Hamer et al. [56]

Adults (n = 445) from the Whitehall II epidemiological cohort, UK; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

HDL-C, triglycerides, HbA1c

Mekary et al. 2009 / 10 min

Age, sex, smoking, employment grade, and current statin use.

β (95% CI)

HbA1c

SB ↔ LPA: 0.001 (0.006, − 0.009)

SB ↔ MVPA: − 0.023 (− 0.043, − 0.002)

LPA ↔ MVPA: − 0.024 (− 0.047, − 0.001)

HDL-C

SB ↔ LPA: 0.005 (− 0.001, 0.01)

SB ↔ MVPA: 0.037 (0.021, 0.054)

LPA ↔ MVPA: 0.032 (0.014, 0.050)

Triglycerides

SB ↔ LPA: − 0.004 (− 0.014, 0.006)

SB ↔ MVPA: − 0.035 (− 0.061, − 0.009)

LPA ↔ MVPA: − 0.031 (− 0.060, − 0.002)

Healy et al. [58]

A general population-based sample (n = 698) from the 2011/12 Australian Diabetes, Obesity, and Lifestyle Study, Australia; cross-sectional

SB, standing, stepping – thigh-worn accelerometers; sleep – self report

Fasting glucose, HDL, LDL, total/HDL-cholesterol ratio, triglycerides and 2-h plasma glucose.

Mekary et al. [12] / 120 min

Age, sex, contraceptive pill use, blood pressure tablets, cholesterol tablets, diabetes medication, ethnicity, occupation and employment status, income, fibre intake, energy intake, energy-adjusted fibre intake, alcohol intake, sodium intake, potassium intake, fruit and vegetable serves.

RR (95% CI)

Fasting glucose

Sitting → standing: 0.98 (0.97, 1.00)

Sitting → stepping: 0.98 (0.95, 1.02)

Standing → stepping: 1.00 (0.97, 1.04)

β (95% CI)

HDL

Sitting → standing: 0.06 (0.02, 0.09)

Sitting → stepping: 0.10 (0.02, 0.18)

Standing → stepping: 0.04 (− 0.05, 0.14)

RR (95% CI)

Total/HDL-cholesterol ratio

Sitting → standing: 0.94 (0.92, 0.97)

Sitting → stepping: 0.97 (0.92, 1.03)

Standing → stepping: 1.04 (0.97, 1.11)

RR (95% CI)

Triglycerides

Sitting → standing: 0.90 (0.87, 0.94)

Sitting → stepping: 0.88 (0.78, 0.98)

Standing → stepping: 0.98 (0.86, 1.11)

RR (95% CI)

2-h plasma glucose

Sitting → standing: 0.99 (0.96, 1.02)

Sitting → stepping: 0.89 (0.84, 0.94)

Standing → stepping: 0.90 (0.84, 0.97)

Healy et al. [57]

Individuals with diagnosed type 2 diabetes (n = 279) from the Living Well with Diabetes intervention, Australia; cross-sectional

SB (prolonged SB and non-prolonged SB), LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Fasting plasma glucose

Mekary et al. [12] / 30 min

Age, sex, BMI, waist circumference, log HbA1c, insulin use, oral hypoglycaemic use, use of glucagon-like-peptide-1 agents, diabetes duration, income, education, weight loss aids in last 6 months, smoking status, CVD-related condition, musculoskeletal condition, depression and/or anxiety, employment, place of birth, Caucasian, energy intake, diet quality score.

RR (95% CI)

Fasting blood glucose

Prolonged SB → non-prolonged SB: 1.01 (0.99, 1.03)

Prolonged SB → LPA: 0.99 (0.97, 1.00)

Prolonged SB → MVPA: 0.96 (0.90, 1.03)

Non-prolonged SB → LPA: 0.98 (0.96, 1.00)

Non-prolonged SB → MVPA: 0.96 (0.89, 1.02)

LPA → MVPA: 0.98 (0.91, 1.05)

Moore et al. [28]

Youth (n = 11,588) from the International Children’s Accelerometry Database, Brazil, Europe, and USA; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MPA, VPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Diastolic blood pressure, systolic blood pressure, HDL, LDL, glucose, insulin, triglycerides

Mekary et al. [12] / not presented

Accelerometer cut points.

Reallocating LPA with VPA was inconsistently related to blood pressure, fasting triglycerides, HDL, or LDL with only 32 of a possible 360 associations statistically significant.

Reallocating LPA with VPA was associated with 12.6 to 27.0 pmol/l lower insulin values at the 75th to 90th percentiles.

Nilsson et al. [29]

Older woman (n = 113) recruited from an newspaper ad, Sweden; cross-sectional

SB (accumulated, continuous), LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Triglycerides, HDL, plasma glucose, and blood pressure

Mekary et al. [12] / 10 min

Medical history, self-rated health status, total energy intake, fat intake, and alcohol consumption.

β (95% CI)

Clustered metabolic risk score

MVPA → LPA: 0.06 (0.01, 0.10)

MVPA → accumulated SB: 0.07 (0.02, 0.11)

MVPA → continuous SB: 0.08 (0.04, 0.13)

Clustered metabolic risk score adjusted for waist circumference

MVPA → LPA: 0.02 (− 0.02, 0.07)

MVPA → accumulated SB: 0.04 (− 0.01, 0.09)

MVPA → continuous SB: 0.05 (0.01, 0.10)

Rosique Esteban et al. [32]

Adults (n = 5776) from the PREDIMED-PLUS trial, Spain; cross-sectional

Sleep, SB, LPA, MVPA – self report

Blood pressure, hyperglycaemia, hypertriglyceridemia, HDL

Mekary et al. [12] / 60 min

Age, sex, education, marital and employment status, smoking habits, personal and family history of illness, medical conditions, medication use, and adherence to an energy-restricted Mediterranean diet.

RR (95% CI)

Blood pressure

MVPA → sleep: 0.99 (0.98, 1.00)

MVPA → TV-viewing: 1.01 (0.99, 1.03)

MVPA → LPA: 0.99 (0.98, 1.00)

LPA → sleep: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

LPA → TV-viewing: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

Sleep → TV-viewing: 0.99 (0.97, 1.01)

Hyperglycaemia

MVPA → sleep: 0.98 (0.95, 1.01)

MVPA → TV-viewing: 0.98 (0.96, 1.00)

MVPA → LPA: 0.96 (0.93, 0.99)

LPA → sleep: 1.02 (0.99, 1.05)

LPA → TV-viewing: 1.02 (0.99, 1.05)

Sleep → TV-viewing: 1.00 (0.98, 1.02)

Hypertriglyceridemia

MVPA → sleep: 0.94 (0.89, 0.99)

MVPA → TV-viewing: 0.94 (0.90, 0.98)

MVPA → LPA: 0.95 (0.88, 1.02)

LPA → sleep: 0.99 (0.93, 1.05)

LPA → TV-viewing: 0.97 (0.91, 1.03)

Sleep → TV-viewing: 0.98 (0.95, 1.01)

Low HDL

MVPA → sleep: 0.92 (0.87, 0.97)

MVPA → TV-viewing: 0.94 (0.90, 0.98)

MVPA → LPA: 0.92 (0.86, 0.98)

LPA → sleep: 0.97 (0.90, 1.04)

LPA → TV-viewing: 0.99 (0.93, 1.05)

Sleep → TV-viewing: 1.03 (1.00, 1.06)

Van der Berg et al. [35]

Adults (n = 2213) from The Maastricht Study, Netherlands; cross-sectional

SB, standing, stepping – thigh-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

HDL, total-to-HDL cholesterol ratio, triacylglycerol, 2 h post-load glucose, fasting insulin

Mekary et al. [12] / 30 min

Age, sex, level of education, smoking status, alcohol consumption, energy intake, mobility limitation, and prevalent cardiovascular disease

OR (95% CI)

HDL

SB → standing: 0.005 (0.00, 0.01)

SB → stepping: 0.041 (0.03, 0.05)

Standing → stepping: 0.036 (0.02, 0.05)

Total-to-HDL cholesterol ratio

SB → standing: 0.993 (0.99, 1.00)

SB → stepping: 0.981 (0.97, 0.99)

Standing → stepping: 0.988 (0.98, 1.00)

Triacylglycerol

SB → standing: 0.991 (0.98, 1.00)

SB → stepping: 0.975 (0.96, 0.99)

Standing → stepping: 0.984 (0.97, 1.00)

2 h post-load glucose

SB → standing: 0.999 (1.00, 1.00)

SB → stepping: 0.981 (0.97, 0.99)

Standing → stepping: 0.982 (0.97, 0.99)

Fasting insulin

SB → standing: 0.987 (0.98, 1.00)

SB → stepping: 0.970 (0.95, 0.99)

Standing → stepping: 0.983 (0.96, 1.01)

Varela-Mato et al. [37]

Adult male heavy goods vehicle drivers (n = 87), from a transport company from the East Midlands, UK; cross-sectional

SB, standing and stepping (LPA, MVPA) – thigh-worn accelerometers; sleep – estimated from the accelerometers and matched with the participants’ daily log

Systolic blood pressure, Diastolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, triglycerides, HDL, LDL, total cholesterol

Mekary et al. [12] / 30 min

Age, ethnicity, education levels, shift pattern, smoking, alcohol intake, fruit and vegetable consumption and BMI.

β (95% CI)

Workdays

Systolic blood pressure

SB → standing: 0.6 (− 0.6, 1.9)

SB → LPA: − 1.9 (− 5.1, 1.3)

SB → MVPA: − 1.1 (− 5.5, 3.3)

SB → sleep: − 0.3 (− 0.4, 0.4)

Diastolic blood pressure

SB → standing: 0.6 (− 0.5, 1.7)

SB → LPA: − 1.8 (− 4.7, 0.9)

SB → MVPA: 0.1 (− 3.8, 4.0)

SB → sleep: − 0.2 (− 0.5, 0.2)

Fasting glucose

SB → standing: − 0.01 (− 0.1, 0.1)

SB → LPA: − 0.04 (− 0.3, 0.2)

SB → MVPA: − 0.3 (− 0.6, 0.1)

SB → sleep: − 0.04 (− 0.1, 0.02)

Triglycerides

SB → standing: 0.00 (− 0.1, 0.1)

SB → LPA: 0.06 (− 0.2, 0.3)

SB → MVPA: − 0.4 (− 0.8, 0.01)

SB → sleep: 0.02 (− 0.01, 0.05)

HDL

SB → standing: − 0.02 (− 0.06, 0.01)

SB → LPA: − 0.1 (− 0.2, − 0.01)

SB → MVPA: 0.3 (0.1, 0.4)

SB → sleep: − 0.01 (− 0.02, 0.01)

LDL

SB → standing: − 0.04 (− 0.2, 0.1)

SB → LPA: 0.2 (− 0.1, 0.6)

SB → MVPA: − 0.1 (− 0.6, 0.5)

SB → sleep: − 0.02 (− 0.07, 0.02)

Total cholesterol

SB → standing: − 0.6 (− 0.07, 0.02)

SB → LPA: 0.1 (− 0.2, 0.5)

SB → MVPA: 0.05 (− 0.4, 0.6)

SB → sleep: − 0.2 (− 0.07, 0.02)

Non-workdays

Systolic blood pressure

SB → standing: − 0.3 (− 1.1, 0.5)

SB → LPA: 0.3 (− 1.3, 1.9)

SB → MVPA: − 0.01 (− 3.7,3.7)

SB → sleep: − 0.6 (− 1.2, 0.1)

Diastolic blood pressure

SB → standing: − 0.5 (− 1.2, 0.2)

SB → LPA: − 0.5 (− 1.9, 0.9)

SB → MVPA: 0.3 (− 2.9, 3.6)

SB → sleep: − 0.3 (− 0.9, 0.2)

Fasting glucose

SB → standing: 0.01 (− 0.07, 0.1)

SB → LPA: 0.03 (− 0.1, 0.2)

SB → MVPA: − 0.3 (− 0.7, 0.05)

SB → sleep: − 0.00 (− 0.06, 0.06)

Triglycerides

SB → standing: − 0.03 (− 0.1,0.04)

SB → LPA: 0.07 (− 0.07, 0.2)

SB → MVPA: − 0.2 (− 0.5, 1.0)

SB → sleep: − 0.02 (− 0.08, 0.04)

HDL

SB → standing: 0.02 (− 0.01,0.05)

SB → LPA: − 0.05 (− 0.1, 0.01)

SB → MVPA: 0.07 (− 1.0, 0.2)

SB → sleep: 0.0 (− 0.02, 0.03)

LDL

SB → standing: − 0.08 (− 0.2,0.01)

SB → LPA: 0.0 (− 0.2, 0.2)

SB → MVPA: − 0.01 (− 0.5, 0.4)

SB → sleep: − 0.04 (− 0.2, 0.04)

Total cholesterol

SB → standing: − 0.08 (− 0.2,0.02)

SB → LPA: − 0.03 (− 0.2, 0.1)

SB → MVPA: 0.03 (− 0.4, 0.5)

SB → sleep: − 0.03 (− 0.1, 0.04)

Wang et al. [74]

Individuals (n = 1699) with diabetes mellitus from the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (2008–2011), USA; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Blood pressure, HbA1c, LDL, HDL, and triglycerides.

Mekary et al. [12] / 30, 60 min

Age, sex, annual household income, education, employment status, Hispanic/Latino background, field centre, smoking, alcohol consumption, duration of Diabetes mellitus, health insurance status, alternative health eating index-2010, self-reported physical health score, and use of antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and lipid-lowering medications.

OR (95% CI)30 min

HbA1c

SB → MVPA: 1.06 (0.89, 1.25)

Blood pressure

SB → MVPA: 1.27 (1.04, 1.55)

LDL

SB → MVPA: 0.94 (0.79, 1.12)

HDL

SB → MVPA: 0.95 (0.81, 1.13)

Triglycerides

SB → MVPA: 0.91 (0.76, 1.09)

60 min

HbA1c

SB → LPA: 1.18 (1.04, 1.35)

Blood pressure

SB → LPA: 1.03 (0.91, 1.18)

LDL

SB → LPA: 1.04 (0.89, 1.22)

HDL

SB → LPA: 1.17 (1.04, 1.32)

Triglycerides

SB → LPA: 1.20 (1.05, 1.36)

Whitaker et al. [38]

Adults (n = 3211) from the CARDIA study, USA; cross-sectional

SB including [i] TV viewing, [ii] using the computer for non-work activities or playing video games, [iii] doing non-computer office work or paperwork, [iv] listening to music, reading a book or magazine, or doing arts and crafts, [v] talking on the phone or texting, and [vi] sitting in a car, bus, train or other mode of transportation, MVPA – self reports; LPA, sleep – not assessed

Composite cardio metabolic risk score

Mekary et al. [12] / 120 min

Age, sex, centre, race, education, unemployment, health insurance, smoking, alcohol, total physical activity, fast food and sugar sweetened beverage consumption, depressive symptoms and BMI.

β (95% CI)

Composite cardio metabolic risk score

TV viewing ↔ computer usage: − 0.07 (− 0.11, − 0.03)

TV viewing ↔ paperwork: − 0.07 (− 0.12, − 0.02)

TV viewing ↔ reading: 0.06 (− 0.11, − 0.02)

TV viewing ↔ talking on the phone: − 0.07 (− 0.12, − 0.02)

TV viewing ↔ sitting in a car: − 0.09 (− 0.13, − 0.05)

Computer usage ↔ paperwork: − 0.00 (− 0.06, 0.06)

Computer usage ↔ reading: 0.01 (− 0.04, 0.05)

Computer usage ↔ talking on the phone: − 0.00 (− 0.06, 0.05)

Computer usage ↔ sitting in a car: − 0.02 (− 0.06, 0.02)

Paperwork ↔ reading: 0.01 (− 0.05, 0.06)

Paperwork ↔ talking on the phone: − 0.00 (− 0.06, 0.06)

Paperwork ↔ sitting in a car: − 0.02 (− 0.07, 0.04)

Reading ↔ talking on the phone: − 0.01 (− 0.07, 0.05)

Reading ↔ sitting in a car: − 0.03 (− 0.07, 0.02)

Talking on the phone ↔ sitting in a car: − 0.02 (− 0.07, 0.04)

Yates et al. [76]

Adults at increased risk of type 2 diabetes (n = 508) from the Walking Away from Type 2 Diabetes Study, UK; cross-sectional

SB, LPA, MVPA – waist-worn accelerometers; sleep – not assessed

Fasting and 2-h post-challenge insulin and glucose, HOMA-IS and Matsuda-ISI

Mekary et al. [12] / 30 min

Age, sex, smoking status, beta-blocker and statin medication status, IMD score (model 1) and BMI (model 2).

OR (95% CI)

Model 1

Fasting glucose

SB → LPA: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

SB → MVPA: 1.00 (0.98, 1.01)

Fasting insulin

SB → LPA: 0.98 (0.95, 1.01)

SB → MVPA: 0.87 (0.81, 0.93)

2-h glucose

SB → LPA: 0.97 (0.95, 0.99)

SB → MVPA: 0.98 (0.95, 1.02)

2-h insulin

SB → LPA: 0.96 (0.92, 1.00)

SB → MVPA: 0.84 (0.76, 0.92)

HOMA-IS

SB → LPA: 1.02 (0.98, 1.05)

SB → MVPA: 1.15 (1.07, 1.25)

Matsuda-ISI

SB → LPA: 1.05 (1.01, 1.09)

SB → MVPA: 1.18 (1.08, 1.29)

Model 2

Fasting glucose

SB → LPA: 1.00 (0.99, 1.01)

SB → MVPA: 1.00 (0.98, 1.02)

Fasting insulin

SB → LPA: 0.99 (0.96, 1.02)

SB → MVPA: 0.92 (0.86, 0.99)

2-h glucose

SB → LPA: 0.97 (0.95, 0.99)

SB → MVPA: 0.98 (0.94, 1.02)

2-h insulin

SB → LPA: 0.96 (0.91, 1.00)

SB → MVPA: 0.85 (0.77, 0.94)

HOMA-IS

SB → LPA: 1.01 (0.97, 1.04)

SB → MVPA: 1.08 (1.01, 1.16)

Matsuda-ISI

SB → LPA: 1.04 (1.00, 1.08)

SB → MVPA: 1.14 (1.04, 1.25)