Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

Altenburg 2015

COPD (62 ± 1^a years; sex m/f: 102/53)

I: Goal setting, motivational interviewing techniques (five individual 30 min counselling sessions) and pedometer use for feedback and motivation

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Usual care

Araiza 2006

T2DM (50 ± 10 years)

I: Pedometer use and instructed to walk 10.000 steps/day on 5 or more days of the week

Yamax Digiwalker SW-701

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Body fat percentage

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- HbA1c

- Fasting glucose

- Fasting insulin

- HOMA-IR

- Triglycerides

- Total cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

- LDL cholesterol

C: Pedometer use and instructed to maintain normal activity habits

Armit 2009

Sedentary older adults (50–59 years: n = 78, 60–70 years: n = 58; sex m/f: 40/51)

I: Physical activity advice provided during a 30 min behaviour change counselling session (Transtheoritical model) and three follow-up telephone calls, pedometer use, goal setting and motivational interviewing techniques

–

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body mass index

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- Resting heart rate

C: Usual care (3-5 min of brief verbal physical activity advice and written information)

Baker 2008

Overweight/Obesity (49.3 ± 8.8 years; sex m/f: 63/16)

I: Pedometer-based walking program with consultations based on the Transtheoretical Model of exercise behaviour change, goal setting (3000 steps/day above baseline)

Omron HJ-109E Step-O-Meter

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Hip circumference

- Waist-to-hip ratio

- Body fat percentage

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- Resting heart rate

- Total cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

- LDL cholesterol

C: Maintain usual activity levels

Bjorgaas 2008

T2DM (58.9 ± 10.5 years; sex m/f: 31/17)

I: Pedometer use, goal setting, physical activity calendar, encouraged to increase targeted number of steps

Yamax Digiwalker ML AW-320

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body weight

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- HbA1c

- Fasting glucose

- Triglycerides

- Total cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

- Peak oxygen uptake

C: Encouraged to increase daily time spent walking

Bond 2014

Overweight/Obesity (46.0 ± 8.9 years; sex m/f: 10/65)

I: Individual face-to-face counseling sessions (6 sessions lasted 30–45 min) based on theoretical constructs from the Transtheoretical Model, Theory of Planned Behaviour, Social Cognitive Theory, and Self-Determination Theory; goal setting, pedometer use, problem solving, action planning, review of progress

–

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C:Standard preoperative care. Surgeons and members of the surgical team advised

participants to adopt an active lifestyle and engage in walking exercise and other similar activities

Butler 2009

CVD (63.8 ± 10.8 years; sex m/f: 83/27)

I: Pedometer use, step calendar, four telephone calls, behavioural counselling, goal setting, generic physical activity information brochures

Yamax Digiwalker 700B

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

C: Generic physical activity information brochures

Coelho 2017

Asthma (45.9 ± 16.7 years; sex m/f: 5/32)

I: Individual standardized educational session, Pedometer use, step based physical activity prescription, goal setting (steps taken during the previous week plus 1000 steps)

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Individual standardized educational session

Croteau 2007

Sedentary older adults (72.9 ± 8.8 years; sex m/f: 32/115)

I: Behaviour change counselling session (Social cognitive theory), pedometer use, goal setting, select strategies for increasing daily step counts, review pedometer usage and discuss procedures for keeping a step calendar and monthly group sessions

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Instructed to continue usual activity habits

De Blok 2006

COPD (64.1 ± 11.1 years; sex m/f: 9/12)

I: Behaviour change counselling programme and pedometer use for feedback and motivation

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Usual care (regular pulmonary rehabilitation programme)

De Greef 2010

T2DM (35–54 years: n = 6, 55–75 years: n = 35; sex m/f: 28/13)

I: cognitive-behavioural group programme (5 sessions of 90 min), pedometer use

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood 4pressure

- HbA1c

- Total cholesterol

C: Usual care and one single group education on the effects of physical activity on diabetes care

De Greef 2011 (1)

T2DM (67.4 ± 9.3 years; sex m/f: 47/20)

I1: Pedometer and diary use, goal setting, three 90 min group counselling sessions (based on the cognitive behavioural therapy, the Diabetes Prevention Program, the First Step Program and motivational interviewing) by a clinical psychologist

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- HbA1c

- Fasting glucose

- Total cholesterol

I2: Pedometer and diary use, goal setting, three individual 15 min face-to-face consultations with a clinical psychologist

C: General care from the general practitioner

De Greef 2011 (2)

T2DM (62 ± 9 years; sex m/f: 64/28)

I: Face-to-face session (based on the cognitive behavioural therapy, the Diabetes Prevention Program, the First Step Program and motivational interviewing), pedometer and diary use, 24-week telephone support programme

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: General care from the general practitioner

Diedrich 2009

T2DM (54.2 ± 11.6 years sex m/f: 18/35)

I: Diabetes Self-Management Education Program, Manpo-Kei book; pedometer use, record pedometer readings according to instructions in the book

Yamax Digiwalker SW-200

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body fat percentage

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- HbA1c

C: Diabetes Self-Management Education Program

Duscha 2018

CVD (62.3 ± 8.3 years; sex m/f: 19/6)

I: CWAT use, exercise prescription by daily step count, health coaching (health related recommendations, planning, motivation and sending educational material via email and text messages)

Fitbit Charge

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic:

- Peak oxygen uptake

C: Usual care

Engel 2006

T2DM (62.4 ± 7.7 years; sex m/f: 28/26)

I: Coaching (Diabetes-related education, goal setting, supportive/motivational strategies, behaviour change strategies and psychosocial support by telephone or face-to-face contact) and pedometer use

Yamax Digiwalker-700

Cardiometabolic:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- HbA1c

C: Coaching (Diabetes-related education, goal setting, supportive/motivational strategies, behaviour change strategies and psychosocial support by telephone or face-to-face contact)

Hospes 2009

COPD (62.2 ± 8.6 years; sex m/f: 21/14)

I: Customized exercise counselling programme (5 sessions), goal setting and pedometer use

Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Usual care

Houle 2011

CVD (58.5 ± 8.5 years; sex m/f: 51/14)

I: Pedometer use, diary, physical activity, goal setting (target of 3000 steps per day increment in physical activity counselling (social cognitive theory) by a clinical nurse specialist

Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic:

- Waist circumference

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- Resting heart rate

- Fasting glucose

- Triglycerides

- LDL cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

C: Usual care

Kaminsky 2013

CVD (56.0 ± 9.2 years; sex m/f: 14/4)

I: Recommended to obtain a minimum of 30–40 min/day moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on days they did not attend cardiac rehabilitation, daily step count goals to increase by 10% of baseline step per day

NL-1000 New-lifestyles

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Usual care

Kawagoshi 2015

COPD (74.6 ± 8.4 years; sex m/f: 24/3)

I: Multidisciplinary home-based physical rehabilitation program, pedometer use, goal of 8000 steps per day, staff gave verbal reinforcement

Kenz Lifecorder EX

Cardiometabolic:

- Body mass index

C: Multidisciplinary home-based physical rehabilitation program

Kempf 2018

Overweight/obese (45.4 ± 10.0 years; sex m/f: 81/99)

I1: Pedometer use, weekly care calls from trained coaches (information about overweight or obesity-related diseases like type 2 diabetes, healthy diet, physical activity, and coping strategies for lifestyle changes), participants were motivated to achieve individual goals using mental motivation program

SmartLAB walk P+

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- HbA1c

- Triglycerides

- Total cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

- LDL cholesterol

I2: Pedometer use

C: Routine care

Kooiman 2018

T2DM (56.4 ± 11.3 years; sex m/f: 38/34)

I: Usual care, activity tracker and access to online self-tracking (eHealth) program

Fitbit Zip

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Hip circumference

- Waist-to-hip ratio

- HbA1c

C: Usual care

Mendoza 2015

COPD (68.7 ± 8.5 years; sex m/f: 62/40)

I: Pedometer use, diary with step count, goal setting

Tanita PD724 Triaxial pedometer

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Counselling to increase physical activity (to walk at least 30 min/day)

Nolan 2017

COPD (68 ± 9 years; sex m/f: 110/42)

I: Usual care (physical rehabilitation programme), pedometer use, goal setting and step count diary

Yamax Digiwalker CW700

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Usual care (physical rehabilitation programme)

Rowley 2017

Sedentary older adults (67.3 ± 6.3 years; sex m/f: 135/35)

I1:Pedometer use, given the goal to increase daily step count by 10% each week, when 10.000 steps per day were reached they were instructed to maintain 10.000 steps per day, incentives

Omron HJ-720ITC

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

I2: Pedometer use, interactive website with key strategies to increase PA systematically in older adults including education and goal setting, self-regulation, and frequent feedback and rewarding, incentives

C: Maintain usual activity levels

Suboc 2014 [1]

Sedentary older adults (63.1 ± 7.3 years; sex m/f: 71/36)

I1: Pedometer use, goal setting (10% above baseline each week to reach 10.000 steps/day)

Omron HJ-720ITC

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- Resting heart rate

- Fasting glucose

- Fasting insulin

- Triglycerides

- Total cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

- LDL cholesterol

I2: Pedometer use combined with

interactive website intervention (frequent feedback, motivational messages, self-regulation, goal setting, education and practice in realistic behavioural change strategies, rewarding)

C: Maintain usual activity levels

Suboc 2014 [2]

Sedentary older adults (63.0 ± 7.3 years; sex m/f: 35/67)

I1: Pedometer use, goal setting (10% above baseline each week to reach 10.000 steps/day)

Omron HJ-720ITC

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic risk:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- Resting heart rate

I2: Pedometer use combined with interactive website intervention (frequent feedback, motivational messages, self-regulation, goal setting, education and practice in realistic behavioural change strategies, rewarding)

C: Maintain usual activity levels

Ter Hoeve 2018

CVD (59.0 ± 8.5 years; sex m/f: 260/64)

I: Pedometer use, 3 face-to-face group PA counseling sessions consisted of information about health behavior, self-monitoring, goal setting, feedback, barrier identification and relapse prevention

Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Usual care

Tudor-Locke 2004

T2DM (52.7 ± 5.2 years; sex m/f: 26/21)

I: First Step behavioural modification program: Behaviour modification program based on the theoretical principles of self-efficacy and social support, the common clinical practices of goal setting, pedometer use and a calendar for self-monitoring and feedback

Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Hip circumference

- Systolic blood pressure

- Diastolic blood pressure

- Resting heart rate

- HbA1c

- Fasting glucose

- Fasting insulin

- Triglycerides

- Total cholesterol

- LDL cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

C: Usual care

Van Dyck 2013

T2DM (62 ± 9 years; sex m/f: 63/29)

I: Pedometer use, face-to-face session, telephone support and goal setting.

Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Waist circumference

- Systolic blood pressure

- HbA1c

- Fasting glucose

- Triglycerides

- Total cholesterol

- LDL cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

C: Usual care

Vidoni 2016

Cognitive impairment related to Alzheimer’s disease (72.3 ± 5.2 years; sex m/f: 12/9)

I: Pedometer use, goal setting (increase goal steps 20% each week and maintaining in weeks 7 and 8), bi-weekly phone calls to encourage physical activity

Fitbit Zip

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Masked pedometers

Vogel 2017

CVD (62.8 ± 9.5 years; sex m/f: 29/0)

I: Pedometer use, goal setting

Polar loop

Cardiometabolic:

- Work rate

C: Usual care

Yamada 2012

Sedentary older adults (75.7 ± 6.8 years; sex m/f: 42/40)

I: Pedometer-based behavioural change program consisted of goal setting (increase daily steps by 10% each month), self-monitoring and feedback

Yamax Powerwalker EX-510

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

C: Maintain usual activity levels

Yates 2009

Impaired glucose tolerance (65.5 ± 9.0 years; sex m/f: 37/21)

I: Group-based education program (PREPARE program), pedometer use, goal setting (increase activity levels by at least 3000 steps/day)

Digiwalker SW-200

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic:

- Fasting glucose

C: Usual care

Yates 2010

Impaired glucose tolerance (65.0 ± 8.9 years; sex m/f: 33/17)

I: Single session group-based education program (PREPARE program), pedometer use, goal setting (increase activity levels by at least 3000 steps/day)

NL-800

New-lifestyles

Physical activity:

- Steps/day

Cardiometabolic:

- Body weight

- Body mass index

- Fasting glucose

- Triglycerides

- Total cholesterol

- HDL cholesterol

C: Usual care