Table 1 Intervention characteristics and strategies sorted by age group

Ducheyne et al., 2014 [47]

Belgium

Randomized controlled trial

Not reported

Sample size determination: not reported

N = 124 (cycling test)/114 (questionnaires) 4th grade students (3 primary schools); nIG(I) = 1; nIG(I + P) = 1; nCG = 1

Children aged 9 to 10 yrs

Not reported

IG(I): Master students provided a training course for basic cycling skills by using cycle games, practical cycling exercises et cetera on the school playground in a traffic-free environment during physical education for 4 wks (one 45 min session/wk).

IG(I + P): After each session, wkly parental assisted homework tasks were provided (identify: 1. legal bike requirements, 2. the safest school cycling route, the most dangerous traffic spots close to the school, 3. if own bicycle considers legal requirements, 4. the correct meaning of different road signs).

CG: No intervention.

Multicomponent (informational, behavioral):

Social support (practical social support), shaping knowledge (instruction on how to perform the behavior, information about antecedents), comparison of behavior (demonstration of the behavior), repetition and substitution (behavioral practice/rehearsal)

Huang et al., 2018 [49] & Mendoza et al., 2017 [50]

USA

Randomized controlled trial

Not reported

Sample size determination: GPower

N = 54 4/5th grade students (4 primary schools); nIG = 24 (2); nCG = 30 (2)

Nf = 64.8%, Nm = 35.2%; nIGf = 54.2%, nIGm = 45.8%; nCGf = 73.3%, nCGm = 26.7%

Children aged 9 to 12 yrs. (9.9 ± 0.7 yrs); IG = 9.8 ± 0.8 yrs.; CG = 10.0 ± 0.7 yrs

Not reported

IG: For ca. 2 months (4 to 6 wks), daily provision of a voluntary bicycle train to/from school accompanied by study staff (duration: 10 to 45 min, school arrival: 25 to 30 min before start, school departure: 5 to 10 min after end time). Stops along the route were based on childrenʼs addresses to pick/drop them up/off.

CG: No intervention but provision of usual “school transportation” information.

Behavioral:

Shaping knowledge (instruction on how to perform the behavior), comparison of behavior (demonstration of the behavior), repetition and substitution (behavioral practice/rehearsal, behavior substitution, habit formation, habit reversal), antecedents (adding objects to the environment)

Østergaard et al., 2015 [45]

Denmark

Controlled trial

“Tryg og Sikker Skolecykling” (Safe and secure cycling to school)

Sample size determination: not reported

N = 2401 4/5th grade students (25 schools); nIG = 1296 (13); nCG = 1105 (12)

nIGf = 48.9%, nIGm = 51.1%; nCGf = 51.2%, nCGm = 48.8%

Children aged 9 to 11 yrs. (mean = 11 yrs); IG = 11.0 ± 0.64 yrs.; CG = 10.9 ± 0.63 yrs

Inspired by correlates of cycling to school (Hume et al., 2009; Timperio et al., 2006)

IG: The duration of the intervention was 1 yr. 1. Hard interventions implemented by local authorities at the school level (structural changes near the school, e.g., road surface, traffic regulation, signposting). 2. Soft interventions implemented by cycling federation at class level (cycling motivation, e.g., competitions and monitoring, and cycling safety, e.g., school traffic policy, cycle training and bicycle maintenance). Cycling incentives, e.g., school campaigns/events for parents/children, free helmets/gimmicks, were also provided.

CG: No intervention but some minor interventions were still conducted in some schools.

Multicomponent (environmental, informational, behavioral):

Feedback and monitoring (feedback on behavior), shaping knowledge (instruction on how to perform the behavior, information about antecedents), comparison of behavior (demonstration of the behavior, social comparison), repetition and substitution (behavioral practice/rehearsal), reward and threat (material incentive for behavior), antecedents (restructuring the physical environment, adding objects to the environment), knowledge transfer, parental involvement

Villa-González et al., 2015 [51], 2017 [52]

Spain

Controlled trial

Not reported

Sample size determination: not reported

N = 469 3rd to 5th grade students (5 primary schools); nIG = 295 (3); nCG = 174 (2)

Nf = 46.5%, Nm = 53.5%; IGf = 47.8%, IGm = 52.2%; CGf = 44.3%, CGm = 55.7%

Children aged 8 to 11 yrs

Conceptual framework of active travel in children (Panter et al., 2008)

IG: Teachers/researchers implemented monthly activities (each 60 to 120 min) in the classroom during regular school hours for 6 months (1. introduction with parental inclusion, e.g., mode of commuting survey and barriers, 2. story reading/performance of scenes related to AST) and school neighborhood (3. knowledge about environmental school characteristics, 4. road safety, 5. street behaviors, 6. AST and road safety education related traditional games).

CG: No intervention.

Multicomponent (informational, behavioral):

Shaping knowledge (instruction on how to perform the behavior, information about antecedents), comparison of behavior (demonstration of the behavior, social comparison, information about othersʼ approval), repetition and substitution (behavioral practice/rehearsal), parental involvement

Børrestad et al., 2012 [44]

Norway

Randomized controlled trial

Active transportation to school and work in Norway

Sample size determination: yes

N = 53 5th to 7th grade students (1 school); nIG = 26; nCG = 27

Nf = 47%, Nm = 53%; IGf = 46.1%, IGm = 53.9%; CGf = 48.1%, CGm = 51.9%

Children/adolescents aged 10 to 13 yrs. (mean = 10.9 yrs); IG = 10.8 ± 0.7 yrs.; CG = 10.9 ± 0.7 yrs

Not reported

IG: For 12 wks, encouragement to cycle to/from school on a daily basis by providing six 30 min group sessions every second wk. during school hours (motivation by raising awareness, counteracting passive transport, parents support, health benefits from physical activity/cycling, road safety issues, cooperation with specialist in cycling safety). Provision of information and encouragement of cycling to school in parental sessions. Delivery of four parental informational letters (study aims/implications). Implementation by researchers/teachers.

CG: Not reported but delivery of four parental informational letters (study aims/implications).

Multicomponent (informational, behavioral):

Social support (unspecified social support), natural consequences (information about health consequences), knowledge transfer

Christiansen et al., 2014 [46]

Denmark

Randomized controlled trial

SPACE–for physical activity

Sample size determination: not reported

N = 1279 5/6th grade students (14 schools); nIG = 598 (7); nCG = 681 (7)

IGf = 49%, IGm = 51%; CGf = 48.2%, CGm = 51.8%

Children/adolescents aged 11.0 to 14.4 yrs.; IG/CG = 12.6 ± 0.63 yrs

Active Living by Design: 5P model (Bors et al., 2009)

IG: Eleven packages (four focused on AST). 1. Policy initiatives comprised a physical activity policy (reduction of school transport by car through parental encouragement to practice AST and be role models, acceptance of school traffic education initiatives and AST usage in educational settings, goal setting for AST and cooperation with municipalities/other stakeholders targeting environmental safety for AST). 2. Program initiatives consisted of a safe cycling education/training and a school traffic patrol (older students). 3. Physical initiatives included changes to enhance AST safety (e.g., cycle path, speed humps, new parking area, bike pool). 4. Preparation included a cross-disciplinary network (teachers, school leaders, municipality consultants, researchers). Awareness of AST benefits in students/parents.

CG: Not reported but some minor interventions were already conducted in some schools.

Multicomponent (environmental, informational, behavioral):

Goals and planning (action planning), social support (practical social support), shaping knowledge (instruction on how to perform the behavior), natural consequences (information about health consequences), comparison of behavior (demonstration of the behavior), repetition and substitution (behavioral practice/rehearsal, behavior substitution, habit formation, habit reversal), antecedents (restructuring the physical environment, adding objects to the environment)

Gutierrez et al., 2014 [48]

USA

Controlled trial

Not reported

Sample size determination: GPower

N = 58 intersections; nIG = 34 at 14 primary schools; nCG = 24

Children/adolescents aged 0 to 17 yrs

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1998)

IG: 1. Placement of 24 newly hired trained and equipped crossing guards. 2. Awareness campaigns done twice (presence/location via automated phone message for faculty/staff/parents, school specific location maps/safety information via handouts, school administration announcement for faculty/students/parents).

CG: No intervention but identical crossing guard conditions.

Multicomponent (environmental, informational):

Shaping knowledge (information about antecedents), antecedents (adding objects to the environment), parental involvement