Skip to main content

Table 1 Descriptive characteristics of the included studies (in an alphabetical order of the last name of first author) (N = 107 studies)

From: Systematic review of the correlates of outdoor play and time among children aged 3-12 years

First author (year)

Language

Analytic sample (n)

Female/girl (%)

Participant agea

Country

Study design

Duration/frequency of outdoor play or outdoor time reported

Aarts (2010) [32]

English

6470

49.9%

4-12 years

Denmark

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 6.9 h/wk

4-6 years: Boys 417 min/wk, Girls 390 min/wk

7-9 years: Boys 449 min/wk, Girls 396 min/wk

10-12 years: Boys 443 min/wk, Girls 373 min/wk

Aarts (2012) [33]

English

3651

49.0%

7.8 years old

Netherlands

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 6.9 h/wk

4-6 years: Boys 408 min/wk, Girls 378 min/wk

7-9 years: Boys 455 min/wk, Girls 398 min/wk

10-12 years: Boys 444 min/wk, Girls 381 min/wk

Aggio (2017) [34]

English

13,169

49.3%

7.2 (0.3) years old

UK

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play (independent) frequency

29% engaged in independent outdoor play

Anthamatten (2014) [35]

English

9900

48.5%

5-12 years

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Armstrong (2019) [36]

English

224

46.0%

2.7 (0.7) years old

Australia

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

68.9 (2.2) min/d in the home yard

Bagordo (2017) [37]

English

1164

48.1%

7.3 (0.9) years old

Italy

Cross-sectional and Longitudinal-Prospective cohort

Outdoor play duration

(% of children with ≥ 1 h/d)

Season I (winter): 33.0%

Season II (late spring): 70.3%

Barros (2012) [38]

Portuguese

265

46.0%

Girls: 5.0 (0.9) years oldBoys: 4.8 (0.8) years old

Brazil

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

(% of children with ≥ 1 h/d)

65.3%

Barros (2019) [39]

Portuguese

700

NR

4.8 (0.8) years old

Brazil

Longitudinal-Prospective cohort

NR

Berger (2019) [39]

English

1160

42.9%

11-12 years at baseline

England

Longitudinal-Prospective cohort

Outdoor play frequency

Total: 75.3%

White: 71.1%

White mixed: 75.1%

Bangladeshi: 74.8%

Black African: 80.1%

Berglind (2017) [40]

English

899

NR

4.0 years old

Sweden

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 136.4 min/d

Weekday: 90.1 min/d

Weekend: 182.6 min/d

Outside of preschool hours

Girls

Weekday: 85.1 min/d

Weekend: 174.7 min/d

Boys

Weekday: 95.9 min/d

Weekend: 189.3 min/d

Bohn-Goldbaum (2013)b [30]

English

164 for direct observation; 140 for interview

NR

2-12 years for direct observation;

≥ 16 years+ with children under 13 years for interview

Australia

Cross-sectional

NR

Boldemann (2006) [41]

English

199

42.7%

4.5-6.5 years

Sweden

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

(≥ 1 h/d on an ordinary Sunday)

95%

Boldemann (2011) [42]

English

169

NR

3.0-5.9 years

Sweden

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

(≥ 1 h/d on an ordinary Sunday)

100%

Bourke (2014) [43]

English

1534

50.3%

0-14 years

New Zealand

Cross-sectional

NR

Bringolf-Isler (2010) [44]

English

680

48.8%

6-10 years

Switzerland

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

81.8 min/d

Brown (2009) [45]

English

372

49.0%

3-5 years

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Burdette (2005) [46]

English

3141

47.0%

39.0 (3.0) months old

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 191 min/d

Weekday: 156.0 (120.0) min/d

Weekend: 226.0 (140.0) min/d

Burgi (2016) [47]

English

209

42.6%

2nd grade: 8.5 (0.3) years old6th grade: 12.5 (0.4) years old

Switzerland

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration (median)

Total: 83.8 min/d

Second grader

Weekday: 83.6 min/d on street and 0.0 min/d outside

Weekend: 92.4 min/d on street and 5.7 min/d outside

Sixth grader

Weekday: 78.0 min/d on street and 0.0 min/d outside

Weekend: 81.2 min/d on street and 0.0 min/d outside

Cardon (2008) [48]

English

783

47.0%

5.3 (0.4) years old

Belgium

Cross-sectional

NR

Caroli (2011) [49]

English

1094

46.4%

56.6 (11.3) months old

DenmarkItalyPoland

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

(≥ 1 h/d)

Weekday

Denmark: 19.8%

Italy: 22.2%

Poland: 35.0%

Weekend

Denmark: 86.7%

Italy: 54.4%

Poland: 91.1%

Carsley (2017) [50]

English

2810

48.4%

1-5 years

Canada

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (median)

Total: 60.0 min/d

Attends daycare: 45.0 min/d

Does not attend daycare: 60.0 min/d

Christian (2014) [51]

English

727

52.2%

11 (0.8) years old

Australia

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency

Total: 70.1% (In the yard: 87.6%; On street: 52.6%)

Non-dog walkers

In the yard: 84.3%; On street: 44.8%

Dog walkers

In the yard: 90.8%; On street: 60.3%

Christian (2019) [52]

English

678

47.0%

3.4 (0.8) years old

Switzerland

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

187.6 min/d in ECEC

Cleland (2008) [53]

English

548

53.2%

5-12 years

Australia

Longitudinal-Prospective Cohort

Outdoor time duration

Total at baseline: 6.2 h/wk

Warmer months at baseline

Weekday: 7.7 h/wk.

Weekend: 9.4 h/wk

Cooler months at baseline

Weekday: 3.0 h/wk.

Weekend: 4.8 h/wk

Cleland (2010) [54]

English

421

NR

5-6 years and 10-12 years

Australia

Longitudinal-Prospective Cohort

NR

Conrad (2013) [55]

English

1670

49.0%

3-14 years

Germany

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

223 min/d

>  2 h/d

5%

Cooper (2010) [56]

English

1010

NR

11.0 (0.4) years old

England

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

41.7 (46.1) min/d outside after school each day (between 3:30 pm and 8:30 pm)

Damore (2002) [57]

English

254

NR

2-12 years

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

Total

≥ 4 d/week: 69.8%

Preschooler

≤ 3 d/week

Suburban: 14%; Urban: 48%

≥ 4 d/week

Suburban: 86%; Urban: 52%

School-aged

≤ 3 d/week

Suburban: 13%; Urban: 46%

≥ 4 d/week

Suburban: 87%; Urban: 54%

Among suburban children only (>  1 h/d)

During school year: 23%

During summer: 63%

Donatiello (2013) [58]

English

1673

48.1%

6.1 (1.7) years old

Italy

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 148.9 min/d

Rural: 185.2 min/d

Suburban:132.0 min/d

Urban: 129.4 min/d

Dregval (2009) [59]

English

515

49.7%

1st grade student

Lithuania

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (≥ 3 h/d)

36.9%

Faulkner (2015) [60]

English

859

52.5%

10.5 (0.7) years

Canada

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (≥ 2 h/d)

Total: 20.0%

Weekday: 7.8%; weekend: 32.1%

Ferrao (2015) [61]

English

514

51.2%

7-12 years

Canada

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency (daily)

13.3%

Frech (2011) [62]

English

3572

48.0%

61.7 (2.8) months old

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency (weekly)

3.8 days with mother

Galvez (2013) [63]

English

324

71.0%

6-8 years

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (median)

2 h/wk.

Gao (2017) [64]

Chinese

1689

NR

Primary school: 10.6 (0.9) years old

High school: 13.5 (0.8) years old

China

Cross-sectional

Multiple groups, but no overall mean

Mean score of outdoor play time (1: < 1 h; 2: 1 h; 3: 2 h; 4: 3 h; 5: > = 4 h)

Boys (Primary): 12.6 ± 4.0

Boys (High school): 11.8 ± 4.1

Girls (Primary): 12.0 ± 3.7

Girls (High school): 11.0 ± 4.1

Gopinath (2013) [65]

English

1794

50.2%

12.7 years old

Australia

Longitudinal-Retrospective Cohort

Outdoor play duration (≥ 3710 h/wk)

25.1%

Gottfried (2017) [66]

English

14,370

49.0%

66.1 months old

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Grigsby-Toussaint (2011) [67]

English

365

47.5%

2-5 years

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

60 min/d

Gross (2013) [68]

English

401

45.4%

5 years

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

60 min/d

Hammond (2011) [69]

English

140

42.1%

6-13 years

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Hinkley (2015) [70]

English

Australia: 71 ECEC centres and 65 preschools;

Canada: 46 ECEC centres

NR

3-5 years

AustraliaCanada

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration (in ECEC)

Total: 125.3 min/d

Australian ECEC: 143.8 min/d

Canadian ECEC: 106.8 min/d

Hornby-Turner (2014) [71]

English

145

100.0%

White British: 9.9 (1.0) years old;

British Pakistani: 10.0 (0.7) years old

UK

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency (24-h recall)

Total: 62.8%

White British: 67.3%

British Pakistani: 58.5%

Howie (2013) [72]

English

231

49.1%

4.3 years old

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Hunter (2020) [73]

English

1212

48.3%

8.5 (3.6) years old

Canada

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

Total: 240 min/d

Weekday: 240 min/d

Weekend: 240 min/d

Imhof (2016) [74]

English

358

51.4%

7.3 (0.4) years old

Switzerland

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

76 min/d

Islam (2016) [75]

English

109

38.5%

11.6 (1.2) years old

Bangladesh

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time frequency (during weekdays)

33.9%

Janssen (2015) [76]

English

724

49.5%

7-12 years

CanadaUSA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency

13.3 (12.6–14.0) times/wk

Jerrett (2013) [77]

English

147

52.5%

8-14 years

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Jin MH (2020) [78]

Chinese

1473

NR

5.0 (1.1) years old

China

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

46.1 min/d

Jin F (2020) [79]

Chinese

121

NR

4-6 years

China

Cross-sectional

NR

Jones (2009) [80]

English

100

53.0%

9-10 years

UK

Cross-sectional

NR

Kepper (2020) [81]

English

30 parents;

263 Adolescents

53.2%

12.5 (1.9) years old

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Kimbro (2011) [82]

English

1975

49.0%

63.5 (3.0) months old

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Weekday: 126 min/d

Kneeshaw-Price (2013) [83]

English

682

49.9%

9.1 (1.6) years old

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Kocken (2012) [84]

English

878

49.2%

6-10 years

Netherlands

Cross-sectional

NR

Kos (2013) [85]

English

68 teachers196 parents ofchildren

NR

3-6 years

Slovenia

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 8.4 h/wk

Warm months: 10.6 h/wk. in playground or nature

Cold months: 6.2 h/wk. in playground or nature

Outdoor play frequency

(% of the day consisting outdoor activities)

24.6% during warm months

14.6% during cold months

Lachowycz (2012) [86]

English

902

52.5%

11-12 years

UK

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 35.9 min/d

Weekday evenings (3 pm-10 pm)

Sedentary: 14.5 min/d; 7.0%

Light: 9.1 min/d; 11.7%

MVPA: 7.0 min/d; 26.4%

Weekend days (8 am-10 pm)

Sedentary: 20.7 min/d; 5.3%

Light: 13.0 min/d; 8.5%

MVPA: 7.5 min/d; 17.6%

Larson (2019) [87]

English

543

56.0%

12.9 (0.7) years old

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

102 min/d

Lee RE (2016) [88]

English

1321

52.6%

9.6 years old

Mexico

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency

75.8% of children answered yes when asked if they played outside

Lee ST (2016) [89]

English

835

49.2%

5.4 (0.1) years old

Malaysia

Cross-sectional

NR

Liu MY (2020) [90]

Chinese

454

NR

30-85 months old

China

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 123 min/d

Weekday: 90 min/d

Weekend: 156 min/d

Outdoor play frequency

(≥ 4 times/week)

Total: 49.3%

K1: 26.6%; K2: 20.7%; K3: 2.0%

Liu TT (2020) [91]

Chinese

1506

NR

9.2 (2.1) years old

China

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total:

Urban weekday: 4.8 (0.5) hours

Urban weekend: 3.0 (1.1) hours

Rural weekday: 8.1 (0.9) hours

Rural weekend: 5.2 (1.5) hours

Marino (2012) [92]

English

878

50.8%

6-11 years

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Martin (2008) [93]

English

331

55.5%

12.1 (1.0) years old

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Martino (2019) [94]

English

29,159

50.0%

9.8 years old

Italy

Cross-sectional

NR

Matarma (2020) [95]

English

712

47.8%

5.1 (0.1) years old

Finland

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

(≥ 60 min/d)

Total: 65.5%

Boys: 70.2%; Girls: 60.8%

McHale (2001) [96]

English

198

51.5%

10.9 (0.5) years old

USA

Cross-sectional and Longitudinal-Prospective Cohort

NR

Miranda-Rios (2017) [97]

Spanish

192

42.2%

5-12 years

Mexico

Cross-sectional

NR

Moore (2020) [98]

English

1472

47.0%

45.1 (7.5) months old

Canada

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

Total: 143 min/d

Girls: 141 min/d; Boys: 145 min/d

Moran (2017) [99]

English

573

50.0%

10-12 years

Israel

Cross-sectional

NR

Mota (2017) [100]

Portuguese

485

46.0%

Girls: 4.7 (0.9) years old

Boys: 4.8 (0.9) years old

Portugal

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 148 min/d

Weekday

Girls: 90 min/d; Boys: 100 min/d

Weekend

Girls: 189 min/d; Boys: 211 min/d

Muthuri (2015) [101]

English

563

53.5%

9-11 years

Kenya

Cross-sectional

NR

Nicksic (2018) [102]

English

748

57.9%

5th grade students

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (≥ 30 min/d)

Child reported: 3.2%

Girls: 3.0%; Boys: 3.3%

Parent reported: 82.2%

Girls: 79.2%; Boys: 86.4%

Nordvall-Lassen (2018) [103]

English

4941

49.6%

9-11 years

Denmark

Longitudinal-Prospective Cohort

NR

Nystrom (2019) [98]

English

1699

55.0%

10.2 (1.0) years old

Canada

Cross-sectional

NR

Page (2010) [104]

English

1307

48.9%

10-11 years

UK

Cross-sectional

NR

Predy (2020) [105]

English

240 directors of ECEC (3 for toddler groups, 19 for preschool groups, and 218 for both)

NR

Toddlers: 19–35 months; Preschoolers: 36–60 months

Canada

Cross-sectional

Duration

Toddler:

Median 30-44 min/d during winter months

Median 75-89 min/d during non-winter months

Preschooler:

Median 45-59 min/d during winter moths

Median 90-119 min/d during non-winter months

Frequency

Toddler:

1 time/d during winter months

2 time/d during non-winter months

Preschooler:

2 time/d during winter and non-winter months

Puett (2019) [106]

English

144

NR

9.6 (1.6) years old

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Ramirez-Izcoa (2017) [107]

Spanish

357

53.5%

6-11 years

Honduras

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

>  60 min/d: 27.7%

Reimers (2017) [108]

English

2538

50.6%

0-12 years

Germany

Cross-sectional

NR

Reimers (2018) [109]

English

266

44.0%

4-12 years

Germany

Cross-sectional

NR

Reimers (2019) [110]

English

3505

51.0%

12.0 (3.3) years old

Germany

Cross-sectional

NR

Remmers, Broeren (2014) [111]

English

2007

49.5%

5.8 (0.4) years old at baseline

Netherlands

Longitudinal-Prospective Cohort

Outdoor play duration

109.0 min/d

Remmers, Kann (2014) [112]

English

1875

49.0%

5.0 (0.5) years old at baseline (7.0 at follow-up)

Netherlands

Longitudinal-Prospective Cohort

Outdoor play duration

Baseline: 10.3 h/wk.

Follow-up: 11.4 h/wk

Riiser (2019) [113]

English

426

47.8%

5th grader students

Norway

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 52.7 min/d

Sedentary: 13.6 min/d

Light PA: 26.0 min/d

MVPA: 13.1 min/d

Total accelerometer counts/min: 1581.3

Schoeppe (2017) [114]

English

3300

51.2%

11.2 (0.8) years old

Australia

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency

6.0 (2.4) time/wk

Sharp (2018) [115]

English

3373

48.4%

33.5 (17.9) months old

Canada

Cross-sectional

NR

Spurrier (2008) [116]

English

280

50.0%

4.8 (0.2) years old

Australia

Cross-sectional

NR

Stone (2014) [117]

English

856

54.6%

11 (0.6) years old

Canada

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (>  2 h/d)

Total: 8%

Girls: 6%;Boys: 10%

Tandon (2012) [118]

English

8950

49.0%

4.4 (0.01) years old

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time frequency (at least once/d)

51%

Tappe (2013) [119]

English

724

49.3%

9.1 (1.6) years

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

van Rossem (2012) [120]

English

4688

50.1%

36.7 (1.4) months old

Netherlands

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (>  3 h/d)

8.1%

van Stralen (2012)b [31]

English

600

51.0%

9.8 (0.7) years old

Netherlands

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play frequency

4.1 time/wk

Vandewater (2007) [121]

English

1045

48.0%

0-6 years

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

65.5 min/d

Veitch (2010) [122]

English

187

53.0%

9.1 (0.4) years old

Australia

Cross-sectional

NR

Villarreal-Calderon (2002) [123]

English

559

47.6%

10.8 (1.0) years old

Mexico

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

Total: 191 min/d

Weekday: 156 min/d

Weekend: 226 min/d

Wang (2018) [124]

Chinese

2116

NR

3-6 years

China

Cross-sectional

NR

Weir (2006) [125]

English

204

46.6%

Inner city: 7.4 (1.9) years old Suburban: 6.9 (1.6) years old

USA

Cross-sectional

NR

Wen (2009) [126]

English

1362

52.1%

10-12 years

Australia

Cross-sectional

NR

Wijtzes (2014) [127]

English

4726

49.5%

73 (5.9) months old

Netherlands

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (≥ 1 h/d)

66.3%

Wilkie (2018) [128]

English

462

55.0%

10.9 (0.5) years old

England

Cross-sectional

Outdoor time duration

> 1 h/d after school: 52.2%

> 2 h/d on weekends: 61.9%

Wiseman (2019) [129]

English

138

48.0%

49.9 (5.4) months old

Australia

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Total: 165.4 min/d

Weekdays: 11.9 h/week

Weekend days: 7.4 h/week

Xu (2016) [130]

English

667

50.0%

2 years old

Australia

Longitudinal-Prospective cohort

Outdoor play duration

138 min/d at baseline

Xu (2017) [131]

English

497 and 415 mother-child dyads

NR

2-3.5 years

Australia

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration (≥ 2 h/d)

68.4%

Yoon (2019) [132]

English

3449

51.7%

Pre-kindergarten to Grade 6

USA

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

Weekday

Total: 81.6 min/d

White: 72.5 min/d; Hispanic: 85.6 min/d

Zahl-Thanem (2019) [133]

English

800

50.2%

6 years at baseline

Turkey

Longitudinal-Prospective cohort

Outdoor time duration

156 min/d

Zhai (2018) [134]

Chinese

403

NR

5-12 years

China

Cross-sectional

Outdoor play duration

4.0 h/wk

  1. aMean age (age range when mean age was not available)
  2. bAn experimental study but only observational data are extracted
  3. ECEC Early Childhood Education and Care; MVPA Moderate- to Vigorous-Physical Activity; NR Not Reported; PA Physical Activity; OP Outdoor Play; OT Outdoor Time