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Table 2 Correlates of outdoor play

From: Systematic review of the correlates of outdoor play and time among children aged 3-12 years

Factors within SEM examined

Association

Consistency of association

Summary of evidence (consistent correlate (“+|+” or “–|–”) is in bold)

Studies

Direction

Consistency (%)

Direction/ strength

INDIVIDUAL (18 identified3/35 examined3)

Demographic

‘ + ’ (1/5): Race/ethnicity (dominant group)

‘ − ’ (2/5): Sex/gender (girls), English as an additional language

 Age (results from 2 to 12 years only; including grade)

[77]PA, [82, 92]*, [63]PA*, [119]PA, [66]*, [126]*, [50]*, [33, 84]*, [90]*, [111, 134, 137]a:age 7

14/23 = 61%

[34, 111]a: age 5, [112]*

+

3/23 = 13%

[61, 96]*, [43]*, [44, 64]*, [79]*

6/23 = 26%

 Sex/gender (girls)

[82, 92]*, [63]PA*, [66]*, [67]PA*, [126]*, [129]*, [50]*, [34, 43]*a, [78, 79]*, [89]*, [100]b:wd, [110]*, [111, 134, 137]

18/41 = 43%

−?

[43, 96]*a, [97]

+

3/41 = 7%

[35]PA, [77]PA, [102]*, [106]*, [60, 61, 118, 130]*, [33]*, [40, 43]*a, [44, 48]PA*, [64]*, [95]*, [99]*, [100]b:we, [112, 113]*

19/41 = 46%

 Race/ethnicity (dominant)

White/Caucasian (ref): [82] (Hispanic), [119]PA*(Hispanic), [63]PA* (Black and Hispanic), [66]*(Asian), [61]*(non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and Other)

5/17 = 29%

++

Chinese (ref): [89] (Malay, Indian, and others)*

White/Caucasian (ref): [82] (Black), [92]* (Black, Hispanic, and others), [132] (Hispanic), [66] (Black/Hispanic)*, [67]PA*, [129]* (not specified), [34] (Black and minority ethnicities), [71] (British Pakistani girls), [84] (Turkish), [120] (Moroccan, Turkish, and Caribbean vs Dutch), [127] (Surinamese-Hindustani, Dutch Antillean, Cape Verdean, Turkish, Moroccan)

+

12/17 = 71%

 Immigration status (immigrated)

[44]

1/1 = 100%

 English as an additional language

[66]*, [126]

2/2 = 100%

Physical

0/6

 Disability status

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Weight status (overweight)

[66]*, [119]PA, [117]b:wd*, [84]*, [97, 104, 113]PA*, [111]

8/11 = 73%

[117]b:we*, [34, 137]

3/11 = 27%

 Pubertal status

[104]

1/1 = 100%

 Born premature/birth weight

[66]*, [65] PA, [103]PA

3/3 = 100%

 Time in neonatal intensive care unit

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Health status (healthy)

[66, 82]*, [69]*

9/13 = 69%

 Depression

[96]

 Itchy or watery eyes

[69]*

 Asthma attacks

[69]*

 Cough

[69]*

 Trouble sleeping

[69]*

 Feeling tired or having low energy

[69]*

 Conduct problems

[96]

+

1/13 = 8%

 Body pain or discomfort

[69]*

3/13 = 23%

 Repeated upset stomach

[69]*

 Frequent swollen glands

[69]*

Psychological

‘ + ’ (3/8): Cons of OP, planning skills, perceived sport competence

 Self-efficacy

[31]

1/1 = 100%

 Perceived barriers

[31]

1/1 = 100%

 Enjoyment

[31]

1/1 = 100%

 Pros of sport participation

[31]

1/1 = 100%

 Cons of sport participation

[31]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Planning skills

[31]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Perceived sport competence

[31]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Preference for non-active things

[122]

1/1 = 100%

Behavioral/temperament

‘ + ’ (11/16): Child autonomy/independence, independent mobility, child-initiation, Overall PA, sedentary time, regular play, OP in the past, min/d spent eating lunch, Mediterranean diet, tummy time frequency, temperamentc

‘ − ’ (1/16): Strengths and difficulties

 Child autonomy/independence

[61]*, [111]a: age7

2/4 = 50%

+?

[111, 126]a: age5

+

2/4 = 50%

 Independent mobility

[99]*, [104]

+

2/2 = 100%

+

 Child-initiation

[45]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

Overall PA

 PA levels

[72]

1/4 = 25%

 Structured exercise/sport

[104]*

+

3/4 = 75%

++

 Active travel to/from school

[104]*

+

 Dog walking

66]

+

 Screen time/exposure

[118, 121, 129]*, [34]

4/4 = 100%

 Sedentary time (min/week)

[132]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Regular play

[44]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 OP in the past

[137]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[31]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Number of days breakfast at home (weekly)

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Minutes/day spent eating lunch

[66]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Mediterranean diet

[92]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Tummy time within one month of birth

[130]

1/1 = 100%

 Tummy time frequency

[130]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

Strengths and difficulties

 Internalizing problems

[34]

2/3 = 67%

 Pro-social behavior

[34]

 Externalizing conduct

[34]

+

1/3 = 33%

Temperament

+?

 Surgency/extraversion

[115]

+

2/4 = 50%

 Negative affectivity

[115]c:boy

+

[115]c:girl

2/4 = 50%

 Effortful control

[115]

PARENTAL (33 identified3/65 examined3)

Parental sociodemographic

‘ + ’ (2/18): Parent’s race/ethnicity (Caucasian/white); parent’s nationality (native)

‘ − ’ (4/18): Parent’s immigration status, parental education, mother’s education, mother’s employment, vehicle ownership

 Age of mother at birth

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Age of primary caregiver/mother

[82, 129]*

2/3 = 66%

[98]*

1/3 = 33%

 Parent’s gender

[98]*

1/1 = 100%

 Parent’s race/ethnicity

[111]

1/3 = 33%

+

White/Caucasian (ref): [118] (Hispanic, Black, and Asian) [50], (Asian or Southeast Asian)*

+

2/3 = 76%

 Parent’s immigration status

Born in Switzerland (ref): [74]PA (immigrated)

1/1 = 100%

 Parental nationality

[130] (Australian born in Australia)

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Parental education

[67]PA*, [122]*, [61]*; [98]*, [33]a,c: 4-6 boy/girl, [74]PA, [84]*, [111]

8/15 = 53%

−?

[32, 33, 118, 132]a,c: 7-12 boy/girl, [37, 38, 100]*

7/15 = 47%

 Maternal

[66, 82]*, [50]*, [78, 89]*, [39, 120, 137]

7/13 = 54%

−?

[59]*, [44] [92]*, [96]*, [124]*, [127]

6/13 = 46%

 Paternal

[96]*, [66]*, [78, 89]*, [97, 127]

6/8 = 75%

[59]*, [124]*

2/8 = 25%

 Parental employment (employed)

[122]*, [60]b:weekday, [98]*

3/5 = 60%

[126]

+

1/5 = 20%

[60]b:weekend

1/5 = 20%

 Maternal (employed/prestige)

[66]*, [96]*, [120, 127]

4/7 = 57%

−?

[63, 82, 118]

3/7 = 43%

 Paternal (employed/prestige)

[102]*, [128]

2/4 = 50%

[99]

+

1/4 = 25%

[138]* (white collar vs unemployed or manual worker, craftsman)

1/4 = 25%

Work shift

 

1/1 = 100%

 SES/household income (high income)

[82, 96]*, [118, 119]PA, [66]*, [50]*, [61]*, [74]PA, [89, 97, 134]

11/16 = 69%

[34, 59]*, [89]*

3/16 = 19%

[98]*, [127]

+

2/16 = 13%

 Vehicle ownership/number of vehicles

[44]

1/2 = 50%

−?

[132]

1/2 = 50%

 Number of licenses in household

[60, 132]

2/2 = 100%

 Mother’s financial difficulties

[120]

1/1 = 100%

 Marital status/cohabitation

[66, 82, 118]*, [122]*

4/5 = 80%

[98]*

+

1/5 = 20%

Parental health

‘ − ’ (1/2): Mother’s depression

 Parent’s weight status

[67, 82]PA*, [120] (pre-pregnancy)

3/4 = 75%

[111]

+

1/4 = 25%

 Maternal depression

[82]

1/3 = 33%

[62, 68]

2/3 = 67%

Parenting style/practice

‘ − ’ (3/9): Hyper-parenting, constraint parenting, encouraging sleep

 Hyper-parenting

 Helicopter

[76]

1/4 = 25%

 Little emperor

[76]

3/4 = 75%

 Tiger mom

[76]

 Concerted cultivation

[76]

 Constraint parenting

 Avoidance

[81]*

2/2 = 100%

 Defensive

[81]*

 Monitoring of child’s PA

[111, 112]

2/2 = 100%

 Rules in the household

[129]*(on indoor/outdoor active play), [32]

2/3 = 67%

[111]

+

1/3 = 33%

 Use PA to reward/control child’s behavior

[129]*

1/1 = 100%

 Use screen time to reward/control child’s behavior

[129]*

1/1 = 100%

 Limit/monitor/discourage screen time

[129]*, [98, 130]*

3/4 75%

[112]

1/4 = 25%

 Limit OP due to weather

[129]*

1/1 = 100%

 Encourages sleep

[98]*

1/1 = 100%

Parental psychological characteristics

‘ + ’ (3/14): Parental attitude towards activities, parents informed about playing with child, importance parents ascribed to OP

‘ − ’ (3/14): Family attitude towards OP, intention to improve OP, concerns towards OP/PA

 Parental attitude

 Attitude towards nature

[69]*

+

4/5 = 80%

++

 Attitude towards recreation

[69]*

+

 Attitude towards child’s PA

[112]

+

 Attitude towards walking

[132]

+

 Attitude towards OP

[111]

1/5 = 20%

 Family attitude towards OP

[111]a:age7

1/2 = 50%

−?

[111]a:age5

1/2 = 50%

Perception/belief/awareness/intention

 Belief that overweight caused be genetic factors

[84]*

1/1 = 100%

 TPB/awareness about being overweight

[84, 130]*

2/2 = 100%

 Belief of being able to give child activities

[130]

1/1 = 100%

 Intention to improve OP

[111]a:age7

1/2 = 50%

−?

[111]a:age5

1/2 = 50%

Concerns

 Mother’s concern towards OP (fearful)

[82]

1/3 = 33%

[62]

1/2 = 67%

 Parental concerns towards child’s PA

[112]

 Perceived responsibility towards child’s PA

[112]

1/1 = 100%

 Pressure towards child’s PA

[112]

1/1 = 100%

 Barriers to child’s activity

 Walking/cycling logistics

[119]PA

3/4 = 75%

 Walking/cycling route

[119]PA

 Perceived lack of appropriate play areas

[119]PA

 Crime activity

[119]PA

1/4 = 25%

Knowledge/value/importance

 Informed about playing with child

[130]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Knowledge of child development

[130]

1/1 = 100%

 Importance/value of PA

[129]*

1/1 = 100%

 Importance parents ascribed to OP

[32]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

Parental behavior/modelling

‘ + ’ (6/11): Parental outdoor activity, parental frequency of walking, parental frequency of organized sport, parental frequency of overall PA, parental modelling, Parental habit strength

‘ − ’ (1/11): Explicit modeling and enjoyment of screen time

 Parental outdoor activity

+?

 Maternal

[114]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Paternal

[114]

1/2 = 50%

Frequency of walking

+

 Maternal

[116]*

+

2/2 = 100%

 Paternal

[116]*

+

Frequency of organized sport

+

 Maternal

[116]*

+

2/2 = 100%

 Paternal

[116]*

+

Overall PA

++

 Maternal

[118, 124, 130]*

+

3/4 = 75%

 Parental

[124]*

1/4 = 25%

 Modelling

[111]

1/3 = 33%

+

[61, 110]

+

2/3 = 67%

 Explicit modeling and enjoyment of PA

[129]*

1/1 = 100%

 Explicit modeling and enjoyment of screen time

[129]*

1/1 = 100%

 Smoking during pregnancy

[120]

1/1 = 100%

 Breast feeding

[120]

1/1 = 100%

 Frequency of parents buying low-cost food

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Parental habit strength

[111]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

Parental support

‘ + ’ (10/11): Co-participation, encouragement, involvement, providing transportation, family visit to OP spaces, emotional support, informational support, instrumental support, companionship, support for PA

 Co-participation

[67]PA*, [98]*, [137]

+

3/3 = 100%

+

 Encouragement

[129]*, [111]a:age5

2/6 = 33%

+?

[111]a:age7

1/6 = 17%

[61, 98, 102]*

+

3/6 = 50%

 Transport

[122]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[67]PA*

+

1/2 = 50%

 Facilitation

[61]

1/1 = 100%

 Involvement

[61]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Family visited OP spaces (playground/park/picnic areas)

[92]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Emotional

[110]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Informational

[110]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Instrumental

[129]* (active play but not for sport), [110]

+

2/2 = 100%

+

 Companionship

[110]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Support for PA

[98]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

MICROSYSTEM DIMENSIONS (15 identified3/33 examined3)

Proximal social environment

‘ + ’ (6/12): Sibling modelling, grandmother in household, dog/pet ownership, time spent with mother/father, peer support/ modelling and number of regular playmates, other social support

‘ − ’ (2/12): Number of siblings, using only Spanish at home for non-White Hispanic children

 Home

 

 Number of residents in household

[62, 82]

2/2 = 100%

 Family composition

[97]

6/6 = 100%

 Nuclear

[78]

 Stem

[78]

 Single parent

[61, 78, 92]

 Single mother

[120]

 Remarried

[78]

 Number of siblings

[32, 44],

3/8 = 38%

−?

[132, 134]

+

2/8 = 25%

[66]*, [61, 126]

3/8 = 38%

 Older sibling

[82]

1/1 = 100%

 Sibling modeling

[111]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Grandmother in household

[132]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Using only Spanish at home for Hispanic

[132]

1/1 = 100%

 Dog/pet ownership

[98, 132]*

+

2/2 = 100%

+

 Time spent alone

[96]

1/1 = 100%

 Time spent with mother

[96]

+

2/2 = 100%

+

 Time spent with father

[96]

+

Peers

 Has many friends in neighborhood

[122]

3/6 = 50%

+?

 Lots of children play in neighborhood

[122]*

 Time spent with peers unsupervised

[96]

 Number of regular playmates

[118]

+

3/6 = 50%

 Peer support

[110]

+

 Peer modeling

[110]

+

Other social support

+?

 Time spent with adults other than parents

[96]

2/7 = 29%

 Social modeling

[31]

 Play space-Friend’s/relative’s house

[132]

+

4/7 = 57%

 Support/reinforcement from other adults

[129]*

+

 Social support

[31]

+

 Social capital on obesity and child PA

[112]

+

 Social grouping (adult present)

[45]

1/7 = 14%

Proximal physical environment (Home)

‘ + ’ (5/21): Detached house, public housing, living close to friends and family, housing price as a reason for choosing the residence, presence of labor-saving devices, electronics in child’s bedroom

‘ − ’ (1/21): Proximity to work as a reason for choosing the residence

 Housing type (detached)

[32] (detached, corner house, flat/apartment); [82] (duplex/townhome)

2/5 = 40%

+?

[98, 131]*

+

2/5 = 40%

[82] (flat/apartment)

1/5 = 20%

 Rental property

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Public housing

[62, 82]

+

2/2 = 100%

+

 Duration of residency

[82] (since 3 years), [62] (3-5 years), [122]

3/4 = 75%

[126]

+

1/4 = 25%

 Degree of high/low rise buildings

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Degree/presence of unoccupied houses

[32, 33]

2/2 = 100%

 Lives in main arterial or busy through road

[122]

1/1 = 100%

 Lives in cul-de-sac

[122]

1/1 = 100%

Lives close to friends/family

 Close to friends

[34]

1/1 = 100%

 Close to family

[34]

1/1 = 100%

 Close to friends and family

[34]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Chose home due to location of kindergarten

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Reasons for choosing current residence (housing price)

[132]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Reasons for choosing current residence (proximity to work)

[132]

1/1 = 100%

 Family chose kindergarten

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Absence of garden

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Maintenance of houses

[33]

1/1 = 100%

Home yard

 Size

[36] (front, back, & total), [122]*

2/3 = 67%

[116]*

+

1/3 = 33%

 Natural features and play areas

[36]

5/7 = 71%

 Portable equipment

[36]

 Lawn quality

[36]

 Flowers

[36]

 Herbs and vegetables

[36]

 Fixed equipment

[36]

+

2/7 = 29%

 Number of items of outdoor play equipment

[116]*

+

 Presence of labor-saving devices

[116]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Number of electronic devices in the household

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Electronic devices in child’s bedroom

[32]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

INSTITUTIONAL (12 identified3/44 examined3)

Timing

‘ + ’ (1/3): Scheduling for study

 Time of the day

[66]* (hours of before/after school), [134]

2/2 = 100%

 Scheduling for study (partial study > morning/full study > afternoon study)

[38]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Days of the week (weekday)

[47]PA, [90]*, [134]

3/5 = 60%

[64]*

+

1/5 = 20%

[86]PA*

1/5 = 20%

Childcare/school environment

‘ + ’ (5/41): Hours in ECEC, ≥ 50% of educators with level 2/3 certification in ECECa, number of play areas in ECECa, % time on child-centered practices in ECEC, receiving free lunch at school

‘ − ’ (6/41): % small class activities, play space-school, child density, supervising teachersc, recess duration, ground surfacec

ECEC

 Attending daycare/childcare/kindergarten

[62, 66, 82]*, [44, 120]

5/7 = 72%

[50, 118]

2/7 = 28%

 Duration in ECEC care

[66]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Class size

[66, 105]*

1/1 = 100%

 Teacher’s education level (postgraduate or higher)

[66]*

1/2 = 50%

?

[63]PA*

+

1/2 = 50%

 Hours received teacher’s aid

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

 Number of educators (part-time)

[105]

2/2 = 100%

 Number of educators (full-time)

[105]

 ≥ 50% of educators with level 2/3 certification

[105]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[105]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Accreditation status

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Centre location (rural vs large)

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Professional development frequency

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Professional development topics

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Family education frequency

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Family education topics

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Space to run

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Play areas

[105]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[105]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Portable play equipment

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Equipment availability

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Amount of equipment

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Written policy

[105]

1/1 = 100%

 Policy components

[105]

1/1 = 100%

% whole class activities

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

% small class activities

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

% time on child-centered practices

[66]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

% time on teacher-centered practices

[66]*

1/1 = 100%

Play group or other education program

[130]

1/1 = 100%

School

 School type (Public)

[107, 137]

2/2 = 100%

 School-level ethnic density

[39]PA

1/1 = 100%

 Free lunch

[77]PA

1/1 = 100%

+

 Special lunch program

[132]

+

1/1 = 100%

 Play space-school

[132]

1/1 = 100%

 Summer camps

[63]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 After school programs

[63]PA*

1/1 = 100%

School playground environment during recess

 

 Child density (number of children/m2)

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Presence of less supervising teachers

[48]PA*c:boy

1/2 = 50%

−?

[48]PA*c:girl

1/2 = 50%

 Recess duration

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Aiming equipment

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Playing equipment

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Hard ground surface

[48]PA*c:girl

1/2 = 50%

−?

[48]PA*c:boy

1/2 = 50%

 Ground markings

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Vegetation

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Height differences

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Toys

[48]PA*

1/1 = 100%

MACROSYSTEM DIMENSIONS/COMMUNITY (28 identified3/98 examined3)

Built environment

‘ + ’ (13/70): Number of learning centers, play space, open space, yard, playground, sidewalks, pedestrian amenities, neighborhood greenness, % of segments with low volume roads, traffic calming measure, roundabouts, % distance to kindergarten, distance to nature, aesthetics

‘ − ’ (6/70): walkability score, # of segments with path obstruction, density of crashes, density of intersections, nuisance, neighborhood physical disorder

General environmental characteristics

 General impression

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Type of neighborhood (city green)

[32] (city green or town center)

1/1 = 100%

 GIS-based PA environment

[119]PA

1/1 = 100%

 Physical environment constraint

[104]

1/1 = 100%

Availability

 

 Number of formal OP facilities per km2

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Number of learning centers

[66]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Recreation/PA/sport facilities

[63]PA*, [88, 134]

3/5 = 60%

+?

[119]PA, [112]

+

2/5 = 40%

 Play space

[104]

1/3 = 33%

+

[38, 132]

+

2/3 = 67%

 Open space

[45]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Green space

[32, 33]

2/2 = 100%

 Garden and parks

[63]PA*, [60]

2/3 = 67%

[44]

1/3 = 33%

 Water

[32, 33]

2/3 = 67%

[132]

+

1/3 = 33%

 Yard

[92]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Playground

[92]

1/3 = 33%

+?

[63, 132]PA*

+

2/3 = 67%

 Local shops, restaurants, shopping centers, playgrounds, and open spaces

[60]b:weekday; [104]

2/3 = 67%

[60]b:weekend

+

1/3 = 33%

Travel/Traffic

 

 Bike lanes

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Sidewalks

[60]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[33]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Walkability

[131]

1/2 = 50%

−?

[88]

1/2 = 50%

 Pedestrian crossings with traffic lights

[33]a,c: age 4-6 girls; [33]a,c: 7-9 boys,; [33]a,c: 10-12 girls; [33]a,c: 10-12 boys

4/6 = 67%

[33]a,c: age 7-9 girls

1/6 = 17%

[33]a,c: age 4-6 boys

+

1/6 = 17%

 Pedestrian crossings without traffic lights

[33]a,c: age 4-6 boys; [33]a,c: 7-9 girls,; [33]a,c: 10-12 girls; [33]a,c: 10-12boys

4/6 = 67%

[33]a,c: age 4-6 girls; [33]a,c: age 7-9 boys

+

2/6 = 33%

 Pedestrian amenities

[88]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Proportion of segments with path obstruction

[88]

1/1 = 100%

 Proportion of segments with low volume roads

[88]c: girls

1/2 = 50%

+?

[88]c: boys

+

1/2 = 50%

 Traffic lights

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Traffic calming

[61]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Refuges/safety islands

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Parallel parking spaces

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Parking lots

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Speed bumps

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Home zones

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 30 km/h zones

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Roundabouts

[33]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Continuity of the road

[134]

1/1 = 100%

 Stop at the side of the road

[134]

1/1 = 100%

 Density of crashes

[132]

1/1 = 100%

 Density of intersections

[33, 132]

2/2 = 100%

 Traffic volume and speed

[33, 131, 134]

3/3 = 100%

 Traffic safety

[119]PA*, [60]b:weekend; [104]c: boys, [112, 134]

5/8 = 50%

[44, 60]b:weekday

2/8 = 25%

[104]c: girls

+

1/8 = 13%

 Traffic accessibility

[134]

1/1 = 100%

 Distance to facilities

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Distance to kindergarten

[66]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Distance to school

[60, 104]

1/1 = 100%

 Distance to nature

[85]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Distance to park

[60]

1/1 = 100%

 Distance to best friends’ house

[104]

1/1 = 100%

 Distance to stores

[119]PA*

1/1 = 100%

 Distance to play areas

[119]PA*

1/1 = 100%

Quality

 OP facilities

[33, 134]

2/2 = 100%

 Green space

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Neighborhood greenness

[67]PA

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Water

[32, 33]

2/2 = 100%

 Sidewalks

[32, 33, 60]

3/3 = 100%

 Bike lanes

[32, 33]

2/2 = 100%

 Good parks/playgrounds

[122, 131]

2/2 = 100%

 Diversity of routes

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Satisfaction with play facilities

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Satisfaction with public green spaces

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Functionality

[112]

1/1 = 100%

 Aesthetics

[104]

1/2 = 50%

+

[119]PA

+

1/2 = 50%

 Attractiveness

[111, 112]

2/2 = 100%

 Dog walking area

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Litter basket for dog waste

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Trash/litter

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Dog waste

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Graffiti

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Vandalism

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Dark spaces

[33]

1/1 = 100%

 Nuisance

[104]c: boys

1/2 = 50%

−?

[104]c: girls

1/2 = 50%

 Neighborhood physical disorder

[82]

1/1 = 100%

Sociocultural environment

‘ + ’ (5/17): Social norm, social cohesion, neighbourhood relationships, child friendliness, media message promoting active transport

‘ − ’ (1/17): Social safety

 Social norm for PA

[104]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Social safety

[32]

1/1 = 100%

[60]

1/1 = 100%

 Social cohesion

[32]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[60]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Satisfaction with social contact

[32]

1/1 = 100%

 Neighborhood collective efficacy

[62]

1/1 = 100%

 Neighborhood relationships

[134]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Neighborhood SES

[32, 62]

2/2 = 100%

 Neighborhood ethnic density

[39]

1/1 = 100%

 Neighborhood poverty

[82]

1/1 = 100%

 Neighborhood deprivation

[81]*, [60, 104]

3/3 = 100%

 Good neighborhood to bring up child

[122]

1/1 = 100%

 Neighborhood safety

[46, 102, 118, 119]PA, [60, 104, 111, 122, 126]

10/11 = 91%

[61]

+

1/11 = 9%

 Safety without supervision

[111]

1/1 = 100%

 Safe for outdoor play

[131]

1/1 = 100%

 Neighborhood crime

[122]

1/3 = 33%

[61]

+

1/3 = 33%

[44]

1/3 = 33%

 Child friendliness

[111]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[99]*

+

1/2 = 50%

 Media message promoting walking/biking to school

[132]

+

1/1 = 100

+

Playground environment

‘ + ’ (2/11): Play facility provision, feature densityc

‘ − ’ (1/11): Naturalness

Physical

 

 Density

[109]

1/1 = 100%

 Size

[108]

1/1 = 100%

 Aesthetics

[108]

1/1 = 100%

 Cleanliness

[108]

1/1 = 100%

 Play facility quality

[108]

1/1 = 100%

 Division of functional areas

[108]

1/1 = 100%

 Provision of multi-purpose areas

[108]

1/1 = 100%

 Playground improvement made

[30]

1/1 = 100%

 Naturalness

[108]

1/1 = 100%

 Play facility provision

[108]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Feature density

[35]PA*c:boy

1/2 = 50%

+?

[35]PA*c:girl

+

1/2 = 50%

Social

 Group size

[109]

1/1 = 100%

 Presence of active children

[109]

1/1 = 100%

 Presence of same sex children

[109]

1/1 = 100%

 Presence of opposite sex children

[109]

1/1 = 100%

 Presence of same sex adults

[109]

1/1 = 100%

 Presences of opposite sex adults

[109]

1/1 = 100%

PHYSCIAL ECOLOGY/PRESSURE FOR MACROSYSTEM CHANGE (5 identified3/12 examined3)

 Season (Fall/Winter)

[112]*

1/7 = 14%

−−

‘ + ’ (3/12): Temperature, % of high-intensity development, population size of municipality

‘ − ’ (2/12): Season (Fall/Winter), COVID-19

[105]*, [50, 82]*, [64]*, [86]PA*, [37]*

6/7 = 86%

 Temperature

[85]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Daylight time

[104]

1/1 = 100%

 Environmental coordination

[134]

1/1 = 100%

 Environmental safety

[134]

1/1 = 100%

 Region (coastal)

[89]*

1/1 = 100%

 Mixed land use

[33, 134]

2/2 = 100%

 % of high-intensity development

[132]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Population size of municipality

[131]

1/2 = 50%

+?

[61]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Rurality (vs suburban and/or urban)

[125]*, [32, 33, 61] (residential density), [78] (with parents working in large cities), [89]*, [99]*

7/10 = 70%

[59]*; [136]*; [134]

+

3/10 = 30%

 COVID-19

[98]*

1/1 = 100%

 Country membership

[49]*

Poland > Denmark > Italy

  1. 1Direction: ‘ ’ = No association; ‘ + ’ = Positive association; ‘ − ’ = Negative association
  2. 2Consistency: 0-33% observations reporting an association (‘ ’: No association); 34-59% observations reporting an association (‘ + ?’: Positive association; ‘ − ?’: negative association); 60-100% observations reporting an association (‘ + ’: Positive association; ‘ − ’: Negative association). When 60-100% of ≥ 4 observations reporting an association (‘ ++ ’: Consistent positive association; ‘ −− ’: Consistent negative association; ‘ ’: Consistent no association)
  3. 3Factors examined indicate the correlates that are hypothesized and tested in different studies while factors identified indicate the correlates that are potentially important based on the consistency of association
  4. *Unadjusted findings only
  5. aAge-stratified findings available
  6. bWeekday-weekend stratified findings available
  7. cSex/gender-stratified findings available
  8. PAPhysical activity during outdoor play was measured
  9. OP Outdoor Play; PA Physical Activity; SEM Socio-ecological Modelling