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Table 3 Correlates of outdoor time

From: Systematic review of the correlates of outdoor play and time among children aged 3-12 years

Factors within SEM examined

Association

Consistency of association

Summary of evidence  (consistent correlate (“+ +” or “– –”) is in bold)

Studies

Direction

Consistency (%)

Direction/

strength

INDIVIDUAL (7 identified3/10 examined3)

Demographic

’ (3/4): Sex/gender (girls),

Race/ethnicity (African Americans),

immigration status (immigrated)

 Age (results from 2 to 12 years only; including grade)

[83]*, [98, 128]b:weekday

3/7 = 43%

[87]*, [128]b:weekend

+

2/7 = 29%

[54]*; [55]*

2/7 = 29%

 Sex/Gender (girls)

[41]*; [42]*; [55]*; [56]*; [75]*; [83]*; [128]b:weekend

7/15 = 47%

−?

[53]*; [54]* [75];*; [80]*; [87]*; [93]*; [123]*; [128]b:weekday

8/15 = 53%

 Race/ethnicity (African American)

[87] (Caucasian/Hispanic)*

1/1 = 100%

 Immigration status (immigrated)

[55]*

1/1 = 100%

Physical

’ (1/2): Weight status (overweight)

 Weight status (overweight)

[101]

1/1 = 100%

 Health status (healthy)

[69]*

5/7 = 71%

 Nasal congestion

[69]*

 Asthma attacks

[69]*

 Frequent swollen glands

[69]*

 Diabetes

[69]*

 Trouble sleeping

[69]*

2/7 = 29%

 Feeling tired or having low energy

[69]*

Behavioral/Temperament

+ ’ (2/4): Physical activity levels, outdoor tendencies

’ (1/4): Indoor tendencies

 Physical activity levels

[55]; [133]* (MVPA)

+

2/2 = 100%

+

 Screen time

[128]b:weekend

1/3 = 33%

[128]b:weekday for computer use

+

1/3 = 33%

[128]b:weekday for tv viewing

1/3 = 33%

 Outdoor tendencies

[54]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Indoor tendencies

[54]

1/1 = 100%

PARENTAL (5 identified3/13 examined3)

Parental sociodemographic

+ ’ (1/5): Parental education

 Parental education

[75]* (father’s)

1/2 = 50%

+?

[98]

+

1/2 = 50%

 Parent in workforce

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 SES/Household income

[75]*

1/3 = 33%

[128]

+

1/3 = 33%

[55]*

1/3 = 33%

 Car ownership

[98]

1/1 = 100%

 Home ownership

[98]

1/1 = 100%

Parenting style/practice

’ (1/3): No adults to supervise active play outside after school

 Rules and restrictions

[54]

1/1 = 100%

 Child must be supervised while playing outside

[54]

1/1 = 100%

 No adults to supervise active play outside after school

[54]

1/1 = 100%

Parental psychological characteristics

 Attitude

+ ’ (2/4): Parental attitude towards nature, crime safetyb

 Towards nature

[69]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Towards child’s outdoor recreation

[69]*

1/1 = 100%

 Concerns

 Traffic safety

[128]

1/1 = 100%

 Crime safety

[128]b:weekend

1/2 = 50%

+?

[128]b:weekday

+

1/2 = 50%

Parental support

+ ’ (1/1): Parental encouragementc

 Parental encouragement

[54]c:boys

1/2 = 50%

+?

[54]c:girls

+

1/2 = 50%

MICROSYSTEM DIMENSIONS (6 identified3/12 examined3)

Proximal social environment

+ ’ (1/5): Social network

 Total number of siblings

[54, 75]

2/2 = 100%

 Dog ownership

[54]

1/1 = 100%

 Social trust and cohesion

[73]

1/1 = 100%

 Social opportunities

[54]

1/1 = 100%

 Social network

[73]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

Proximal physical environment (Home)

+ ’ (3/8): Housing type (detached), residential building characteristics, screen in child’s bedroomb

’ (2/8): Residential building density, access to mediab

 Housing type (detached)

[55]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Duration of residency

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Building characteristics

 Number of stories in child’s residence building

[75]*

1/4 = 25%

+?

 Living in a building with outdoor space

[75]*

+

2/4 = 50%

 Lives in neighbourhood with dead-end

[75]

+

 Level of residence floor

[75]

1/4 = 25%

 Density-Total building footprint area

[75]

2/2 = 100%

 Density-Gross building floor area

[75]*

 Access to media

[128]b:weekend

1/2 = 50%

−?

[128]b:weekday

1/2 = 50%

 Yard size

[54]

1/1 = 100%

 Home PA opportunities

[54]

1/1 = 100%

Screen in child’s bedroom

+?

 Computer

[128]

3/5 = 60%

 TV

[128]b:weekend

Non hand-held video game player

[128]b:weekend

 TV

[128]b:weekday

+

2/5 = 40%

Non hand-held video game player

[128]b:weekday

+

INSTITUTIONAL (5 identified3/5 examined3)

Timing

+ ’ (2/5): Time of the day (during school hours), % total vegetation in childcare center

’ (3/5): Days of the week (weekdays), school-level SESb, Shade factor in childcare centre

 Time of the day (school hours)

[56] (first hour after school)*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Days of the week (weekdays)

[47]

1/2 = 50%

−?

[55]*

1/2 = 50%

Childcare/school Environment

 School-level SES

[98]b:weekday

1/2 = 50%

−?

[98]b:weekend

1/2 = 50%

 % total vegetation in childcare

[52]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Shade factor in childcare

[52]

1/1 = 100%

 Country membership of childcare centers

[70]*

Australia > Canada

MACROSYSTEM DIMENSIONS/COMMUNITY (8 identified3/19 examined3)

Built Environment

+ ’ (3/19): Size of the community (small), adjacent space, neighborhood safety

’ (5/19): Residential area, mixed-use building area, under-construction area, street intersection density, gridiron street pattern

 Size of the community (small)

[55]*

+

1/1 = 100%

+

Land-use (total footprint and gross floor areas)

 Residential area

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Commercial area

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Institutional building area

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Mixed-use building area

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Under-construction area

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

Availability/accessibility

 Adjacent space

[75]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Local destinations

[54]

1/1 = 100%

Travel

 Easy to walk

[73]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

 Street width

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Traffic volume

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Street capacity-street used mainly by pedestrians and non-motorized vehicles

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Street capacity-Street used by all types of vehicles, except buses and trucks

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Street capacity-Street used by all types of vehicles

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Street intersection density

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Unplanned street development

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Street pattern-spontaneous street pattern

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Street pattern-gridiron street pattern

[75]*

1/1 = 100%

 Neighbourhood safety

[75]

+

1/1 = 100%

+

PHYSCIAL ECOLOGY/PRESSURE FOR MACROSYSTEM CHANGE (2 identified3/2 examined3)

Natural Environment

+ ’ (1/2): Rurality

’ (1/2): Seasonality

 Seasonality (Fall/Winter)

[54]

1/4 = 25%

[55]*; [56]*; [57]*

3/4 = 75%

 Rurality (vs suburban/urban)

[98]

1/5 = 20%

++

[57]*, [55]*, [58, 80]*

+

4/5 = 80%

  1. 1Direction: ‘ ’ = No association; ‘ + ’ = Positive association; ‘ − ’ = Negative association
  2. 2Consistency: 0-33% observations reporting an association (‘ Ø ’: No association); 34-59% observations reporting an association (‘ + ?’: Positive association; ‘ − ?’: negative association); 60-100% observations reporting an association (‘ + ’: Positive association; ‘ − ’: Negative association). When 60-100% of ≥ 4 observations reporting an association (‘ ++ ’: Consistent positive association; ‘ − − ’: Consistent negative association; ‘ØØ’: Consistent no association)
  3. 3Factors examined indicate the correlates that are hypothesized and tested in different studies while factors identified indicate the correlates that are potentially important based on the consistency of association
  4. *Unadjusted findings only
  5. aAge-stratified findings available
  6. bWeekday-weekend stratified findings available
  7. cSex/gender-stratified findings available
  8. SEM Socio-ecological modelling