Table 6 Studies and effect sizes for individual parental support behaviours (k = 64)

Anderson et al. (2007) [119] USA

N = 100

CS

Child report

Accelerometer (4 d)

Children’s MPA & encouragement: r = −.06

.05

47 m, 53 f

Encouragement

.70*

Children’s VPA & encouragement: r = .11

13.4 yrs

.63

Mean r = .03

Anderson et al. (2009) [120] USA

N = 391

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA & encouragement: r = .39

.56

207 m, 184 f

Encouragement

PAQ-C

Adolescents’ MVPA & parental encouragement: r = .25

.36

9.9 yrs

.70*

.70*

N = 948

Child self-report

370 m, 578 f

MAQ-A

13.6 yrs

.70*

Arredondo et al. (2006) [121] USA

N = 812

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s PA & monitoring: β = .19, p < .001*

.27

390 m, 422 f

Monitoring

.70*

Children’s PA & praise: β = .13, p < .001*

.19

.70*

*Adjusted for parent’s age, marital status, employment, & education

6.0 yrs

Reinforcement/praise

.70*

Beets et al. (2006) [122] USA

N = 363

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA & providing transportation: β = .28

.40

174 m, 189 f

Encouragement

Youth risk behavior surveillance survey

Children’s MVPA & praise: β = .36

.51

12.3 yrs

.70*

.70*

Transportation

.70*

Co-activity

.70*

Watch.

70*

Praise

.70*

De Bourdeaudhuij et al. (2005) [123] Belguim

N = 5563 (normal weight)

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s PA & encouragement: r = .25 (normal weight); r = .26 (overweight)

.35

14.8 yrs

Encouragement

Study developed questionnaire

Mean r = .25

N = 515 (overweight & obese)

.70*

.75

14.6 yrs

Dowda et al. (2011) [40] USA

N = 369

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (2 wk)

Children’s MVPA & PA equipment: β = .17

.22

175 m, 194 f

PA equipment at home

.80*

4.2 yrs

.70* (92% respondents mothers)

Direct observation (OSRAC-P)

Inter-observer .91

Fredricks & Eccles (2005) [42] USA

N = 364

PRO (1 yr)

Parent report

Child self-report

Children’s PA (sport) & encouragement: r = .33, p < .001 (baseline); r = .31, p < .001 (follow-up)

.45

184 m, 180 f

Encouragement & co-activity

.70*

Mean r = .32

.08

Ages 7.0-11.0 yrs at baseline

α = .73

Children’s PA (sport) & co-activity: r = .05 (baseline); r = .07 (follow-up)

.36

Equipment purchases

Mean r = .06

Children’s PA (sport) & PA equipment: r = .24, p < .001 (baseline); r = .25, p < .001

.70*

Mean r = .25

Gubbels et al. (2011) [124] Netherlands

N = 2026

PRO (2 yrs)

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s PA & encouragement: β = .06, p < .05

.09

1037 m, 989 f

Encouragement

.70*

5.0 yrs at baseline

α = .57

Heitzler et al. (2006) [76] USA

N = 3114

CS

Parent reported

Child self-report

Children’s organized PA & transportation: OR = 1.21, 95% CI 1.11-1.33, p < .001

.12

Age range: 9.0-13.0 yrs

Parental support – aggregated and individually reported (co-activity, watching child, & transportation)

Test-retest .64

Children’s organized PA & watching: OR = 1.31, 95% 1.19-1.43, p < .001

.16

Test-retest .65

Children’s organized PA & co-activity: OR = 1.08, 95% CI 1.02-1.13, p < .001

.01

Hendrie et al. (2011) [44] Australia

N = 106

CS

Parent report

Child self-report

Children’s organized PA & co-activity: r = .247, p < .05; r = .286, p < .01 when controlled for parent demographic factors

.33

51 m, 55 f

Parental support – aggregate measure (watch, transportation)

CLASS

8.3 yrs

α = .79

.70*

Co-activity

α = .79

(92% respondents mothers)

Hennessy et al. (2010) [45] USA

N = 76

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (5 d)

Children’s PA & monitoring: β = −.13

-.17

26 m, 50 f

Monitoring

.70*

Children’s PA & praise: β = −.05, p = .68

-.07

9.1 yrs

Reinforcement

.83

Hohepa et al. (2007) [125] New Zealand

N = 3471

CS

Child report

Child report

Adolescents’ PA & encouragement: r = .38 (juniors); r = .41 (seniors)

.56

1666 m, 1805 f

Encouragement

.70*

Mean r = .39

14.8 yrs

.70*

Huang et al. (2011) [126] China

N = 303

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA & PA equipment: r = .14, p < .05

.20

143 m, 160 f

Availability of PA equipment

CLASS-C

11.1 yrs

.70*

.70*

Klesges et al. (1984) [127] USA

N = 14

CS

Direct observation (FATS)

Direct observation (FATS)

Children’s PA (activity monitor) & encouragement: r = .23

.29

7 m, 7 f

Encouragement

.90

2.8 yrs

.90

Activity monitor

.70*

Klesges et al. (1986) [128] USA

N = 30

CS

Direct observation (FATS)

Direct observation (FATS)

Children’s PA & encouragement: r = .32, p < .05

.36

15 m, 15 f

Encouragement

.90

2.5 yrs

.90

Klesges et al. (1990) [129] USA

N = 222

CS

Direct observation (CATS)

Direct observation (CATS)

Children’s PA & encouragement: β = .32, p = .648

.35

122 m, 100 f

Encouragement

.91

4.4 yrs

.91

King et al. (2008) [130] USA

N = 535

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s VPA & encouragement: r = .15

.20

290 m, 245 f

Encouragement

.70*

Children’s MPA & encouragement: r = .13

Age range: 14–18 yrs

.70*

Mean r = .14

Lawman & Wilson (2014) [79] USA

N = 181

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (7 d)

Adolescent’s MVPA & PA equipment: r = .09

.13

72 m, 109 f

Availability of PA equipment

.80*

Adolescent’s MVPA & monitoring: r = .07

.08

13.3 yrs

α = .61

Monitoring

α = .86

Loprinzi et al. (2013) [50] USA

N = 176

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s MVPA & monitoring: β = .20, p < .05

.29

82 m, 94 f

Monitoring child’s PA

PAEC-Q

4.0 yrs

.70 (85% respondents mothers)

.70*

Loucaides et al. (2004) [131] Cyprus

N = 256

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA & encouragement: r = .12 (winter); r = .13 (summer)

.10

Age range: 11.0-12.0 yrs

Encouragement

PDPAR

Mean r = .08

Test-test .64

Test-retest .96

Children’s MVPA & PA equipment: r = .25, p < .001 (winter); r = .18, p < .01 (summer)

Parent report

Mean r = .22

.27

Availability of PA equipment

.70*

Loucaides & Jago (2006) [132] Cyprus

N = 104

CS

Parent report

Pedometer (5 d)

Children’s PA & equipment: r = .10

.14

54 m, 50 f

PA equipment

.70*

Children’s PA & transportation: r = .17

.24

Age range: 10.0-12.0 yrs

.70*

Children’s PA & watching: r = .18

.22

Transportation

.70*

Accompany child to PA

.99

Määtä et al. (2014) [133] Finland

N = 883

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Child PA & encouragement: r = .19, p < .001

.25

Age range: 10–11 yrs

Encouragement

.70*

Child PA & Co-activity: r = .16, p < .001

.24

α = .84

Co-activity

α = .63

McKenzie et al. (1991) [134] USA

N = 42

PRO

Direct observation (BEACHES)

Direct observation (BEACHES)

Children’s PA & encouragement: r = .43, p < .01

.51

17 m, 25 f

(8 wks)

Prompts to be active

.85

Age range: 4.0-8.0 yrs

.85

McKenzie et al. (2008) [135] USA

N = 139

CS

Direct observation (BEACHES)

Direct observation (BEACHES)

Children’s MVPA & encouragement: r = .53, p < .01

.62

69 m, 70 f

Prompts to be active

.85

6.5 yrs

.85 (97% respondents mothers)

Millstein et al. (2011) [136] USA

N = 104

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s MVPA & PA equipment at home: r = .14, p < .15

.18

8.3 yrs

Availability of PA equipment

ICC = .76

Children’s MVPA & providing recreation centre membership: r = .04

.05

N = 137

ICC = .80

Child self-report

Adolescents’ MVPA & PA equipment at home: r = .28, p < .01

.42

14.6 yrs

Provision of recreation centre membership

ICC = .64

Adolescent’s MVPA & providing recreation centre membership: r = .24, p < .01

.37

ICC = .76

Child report

Availability of PA equipment

ICC = .69

Provision of recreation centre membership

ICC = .66

Moore et al. (2008) [137] USA

N =116

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Adolescents’ MVPA & financial support (lessons): OR = 2.79, 95% CI 1.18-6.60, p < .05

.50

46 m, 70 f

Financial support

.70*

Adolescents’ MVPA & financial support (sports): OR = 5.61, 95% CI 2.30-13.70, p < .01

Age range: 9.0-17.0 yrs

.70*

Mean r = .35

Moore et al. (2014) [138] USA

N = 1005

CS

Child report

Accelerometer (4 d)

Children’s MVPA & watching: OR .99, 95% CI .87-1.14); r = −.004

-.01

11.3 yrs

Watch, praise, transportation, co-activity

.70*

Children’s MVPA & praise: OR 1.01, 95% CI .88-1.12; r = .004

.01

α = .76-.90

Children’s MVPA & transportation: OR 1.28, 95% CI 1.12-1.45, p < .05; r = .14

.19

Children’s MVPA & co-activity: OR .99, 95% CI .87-1.12; r = −.004

-.01

Mota (1998) [53] Portugal

N = 45

CS

Parent self-report

Child self-report

Children’s PA & co-activity: r = .35, p < .05

.44

18 m, 27 f

.88

.72

10.1 yrs

Nelson et al. (2005) [139] USA

N = 1681

PRO (8 yrs)

Co-activity

7DPAR

Children’s MVPA & co-activity: OR = 5.84, 95% CI 5.02-6.80

.87

14.9 yrs at baseline

.70*

.70*

Østbyte et al. (2013) [54] USA

N = 208

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (7 d)

Children’s MVPA & PA equipment at home: r = .01

.01

116 m, 92 f

PA equipment

.80*

2-5 yrs

α = .65 (all mothers)

Pate et al. (1997) [140] USA

N = 361

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA & PA equipment: r = .10

.13

176 m, 185 f

PA equipment at home

PDPAR

10.7 yrs

ICC = .86

.70*

Patnode et al. (2010) [55] USA

N = 294

CS

Parent reported the provision of PA equipment

Accelerometer (7 d)

Adolescents’ MVPA & PA equipment: r = .21, p < .001

.27

149 m, 145 f

.70*

.80*

15.4 yrs

Pfeiffer et al. (2009) [57] USA

N = 331

CS

Providing PA equipment

Accelerometer (8–10 d)

Children’s’ MVPA & PA equipment: r = .10, p < .10

.13

169 m, 162 f

.70* (94% respondents mothers)

4.3 yrs

.80*

Prochaska et al. (2002) [81] USA

N = 138

CS

Child report

Activity monitor (5 d)

Children’s PA (monitor) & encouragement: r = .07

.09

48 m, 90 f

Parental support – aggregated & individual measures: Encouragement, coactivity, transportation, watch, praise

.70*

Children’s PA (monitor) & coactivity: r = .08

.10

Children’s PA (monitor) & transportation: r = .02

.03

12.1 yrs

ICC = .88

ICC = .79

Children’s PA (monitor) & watching: r = .16

.20

α = .77

Children’s PA (monitor) & praise: r = .12 .30, p < .01

.15

Sabiston & Crocker (2008) [141] Canada

N = 857

CS

Child report

GLTEQ

Adolescents’ MVPA & encouragement: r = .27, p < .05

.37

419 m, 438 f

Encouragement .77

.70*

16.3 yrs

Schary et al. (2012) [84] USA

N = 195

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s PA & encouragement: r = .28, p < .001

.38

90 m, 105 f

Parental support – aggregated & individual measures (encouragement, transportation, co-activity, watch, inform)

PAEC-Q

Children’s PA & watching: r = .22

.30

4.0 yrs

α = .76 (86% respondents mothers)

.70*

Children’s PA & co-activity: r = .26, p < .001

.36

Children’s PA & transportation: r = .22, p < .001

.30

Children’s PA & providing information: r = .16, p < .05

.22

Vella et al. (2014) [65] Australia

N = 4042

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s PA & co-activity: OR = 1.40, 95% CI 1.24-1.57 p < .05; r = .13

.19

2069 m, 1973 f

Co-activity

Organized sports participation

.70* (96% respondents mothers)

.70*

8.3 yrs

Verloigne et al. (2014) [85] Australia

N = 134

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (4 d)

Adolescent MVPA & co-activity: r = .01

.01

66 m, 68 f

Co-activity

.70*

Adolescent MVPA & praise: r = .01

.01

14.1 yrs

Praise

.70* (84% respondents mothers)

Zhao & Settles (2014) [69] USA

N = 1514

CS

Parent self-report

Parent report

Children’s MPA & encouragement: β = .30, p < .05

.24

763 m, 751 f

Encouragement

.70*

Children’s VPA & encouragement: β = .14

.33

11.8 yrs

Co-activity

Mean β = .17

.70*

Children’s MPA & co-activity: β = .21, p < .01

Children’s VPA & co-activity: β = .25, p < .01

Mean β = .23