Table 2 Participant, intervention and study characteristics

Bezerra (2014) [75] Brazil

N = 36

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 63.1 (13.3); control group = 61.0 (6.9) years.

Yoga, 3 times a week, 65 min per session, 12 weeks

1. IC: Control group

Physical function: Body weight

Bonura (2014) [63] USA

N = 98

Mean age (SD): 77.04 (7.28) years

Chair yoga, 1 session a week, 45 min per session, 24 weeks

1. AC: Chair exercise

2. IC: Wait-list control

HRQoL: Anger, anxiety, depression, well-being, general self-efficacy, self-efficacy for daily living, self-control

Bethany (2005) [55] USA

N = 42

Mean age (SD): 83.14 (4.84) years

Chair yoga, 3 times a week, 30 min per session, 6 weeks

1. AC: Chair aerobics

2. AC: Walking programme

3. IC: Game playing

HRQoL: Stress frequency, stress severity, state anxiety, depression, motivational factors to exercise

Chen (2008) [53] Taiwan

N = 176

Mean age (SD): Complete Silver Yoga = 65.81 (4.34); Shortened Silver Yoga = 68.08 (6.32); control group = 72.42 (6.04) years

1. Complete Silver Yoga with meditation, 3 times a week, 70 min per session, 24 weeks 2. Shortened Silver Yoga, 3 times a week, 55 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Wait-list control

Physical function: Bodyweight, BMI, body fat percentage, lower body flexibility, upper limb strength, lower limb strength, balance, walking speed, range of motion: flexion and abduction of shoulder and hip joints on both sides

Chen (2009) [61] Taiwan

N = 128

Mean age (SD): 69.20 (6.23) years

Silver Yoga, 3 times a week, 70 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Wait-list control

HRQoL: Sleep quality, depression, perceived mental and physical health

Chen (2010)1 [60] Taiwan

N = 55

Mean age (SD): 75.40 (6.70) years

Silver Yoga, 3 times a week, 70 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Wait-list control

HRQoL: Sleep quality, depression, perceived mental and physical health

Chen (2010)2 [59] Taiwan

N = 55

Mean age (SD): 75.40 (6.70) years

Silver Yoga, 3 times a week, 70 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Wait-listcontrol

Physical function: Body weight, BMI, body fat percentage, cardiopulmonary fitness, upper body flexibility, lower body flexibility and range of motion: flexion and abduction of shoulder and hip joints on both sides, upper limb and lower limb muscle strength, balance, and walking speed

Gothe (2016) [91] USA

N = 108

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 62.1 (5.82); control group = 62.0 (5.39) years

Hatha yoga, 3 times a week, 60 min per session, 8 weeks

1. AC: Stretching–strengthening control group

Physical function: Mobility, upper and lower limb strength, upper and lower body flexibility, balance, walking speed

Gothe (2013) [68] USA

N = 108

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 62.1 (5.82); control group = 62.0 (5.39) years

Hatha yoga, 3 times a week, 75 min per session, 8 weeks

1. AC: Stretching–strengthening control group

HRQoL: Stress, anxiety

Haber (1983) [70] USA

Centre1 N: 51

Mean age: 69 years

Centre1 N: 35

Mean age: 70 years

The Easy Does it Yoga Programme for Older People, 

1 session a week,

Daily home practice encouraged, 10 weeks

1. IC: Control group (film series or art class)

HRQoL: Self assessed health status, psychological wellbeing

Haber (1988) [66] USA

N = 410

Mean age: 75 years

The Easy Does it Yoga Programme for Older People, 3 times a week, 60 min per session, 10 weeks

1. IC: Control group

HRQoL: Self-care, sociability, medication usage

Hariprasad (2013) [74] India

N = 87

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 75.74 (6.46); control group = 74.78 (7.35) years

Yoga, daily supervised sessions for 1 month. 1 session per week in the 2nd and 3rd month. Daily home practice following this, 60 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Wait-list control

HRQoL: Perceived physical and mental health, sleep

Krishnamurthy (2007) [92]  India

N = 50

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 70.1 (8.3); ayurveda = 72.1 (9.0); wait-list = 72.3 (7.4) years

Yoga, 6 times a week, 60 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Ayurveda group (herbal preparation)

2. IC: Wait-list control

Physical function: Balance, mobility

Krishnamurthy (2007)2 [58]

 India

N = 50

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 70.1 (8.3); ayurveda = 72.1 (9.0); wait-list = 72.3 (7.4) years

Yoga, 6 times a week, 60 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Ayurveda group (herbal preparation)

2. IC: Wait-list control

HRQoL: Depression

Leininger (2006) [69] USA

N = 82

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 69.6 (6.7); education group = 68.2 (5.4) years

Hatha yoga, 2 supervised sessions a week. Home exercises recommended at least three times a week, 60 min per session, 10 weeks

1. IC: Education control group (on topics of osteoporosis and fitness)

Physical function: Balance, lower limb strength,

HRQoL: Balance confidence, vitality

Manjunath (2005) [57] India

N = 50

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 70.1 (8.3); ayurveda = 72.1 (9.0); wait-list = 72.3 (7.4) years

Yoga training, 6 times a week, 60 min per session, 24 weeks

1. IC: Ayurveda (herbal preparation)

2. IC: Wait-list control

HRQoL: Sleep quality

Marques (2017) [78] Portugal

N = 25

Mean age (SD): 83.16 (7.4) years

Chair based yoga, 2 to 3 times a week, 50 min per session, 28 weeks

1. IC: Control group given education booklet

Physical function: Cardio-respiratory fitness, mobility, upper body flexibility

HRQoL: Stress, perceived mental health

Morris (2008) [67] USA

N = 18

Mean age (SD): 76.06 (6.35) years

Hatha yoga, 2 times a week, 60 min per session, 8 weeks

1. AC: Balance training exercise

2. IC: Fall risk awareness

Physical function: Balance, fall frequency

HRQoL: Fear of falls, balance confidence

Ni (2014) [56] USA

N = 39

Mean age (SD): 74.15 (6.99) years

Balance yoga programme, 2 times a week, 60 min per session, 12 weeks

1. AC: Tai Chi

2. AC: Standard balance programme

Physical function: Mobility, balance, walking speed

Nick (2016) [76] Iran

N = 39

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 68 (4.87); control group = 68.79 (4.81) years

Hatha yoga, 2 times per week, 60 min per session, 8 weeks

1. IC: Control group

Physical function: Balance

HRQoL: Fear of falls

Noradechanunt (2017) [72] Australia

N = 33

Mean age (SD): 67.7 (6.7) years

Thai Yoga, 2 supervised session a week, 80 min per session. Home practice on alternate days for 20 min, 12 weeks

1. AC: Tai Chi

2. IC: Control group

Physical function: Lower and upper limb strength, lower and upper body flexibility, mobility

HRQoL: Perceived physical and mental health, depression

Oken (2006) [64] USA

N = 118

Mean age (SD): yoga group = 71.5 (4.9); exercise group = 73.6 (5.1); wait-list = 71.2 (4.4) years

Iyengar yoga, 1 class a week with home practice, 90 min per session, 24 weeks

1. AC: Walking group

2. IC: Wait-list control

Physical function: Lower body flexibility, lower limb strength, balance, walking speed

HRQoL: Mood, fatigue, depression, perceived physical and mental health, pain, general health and well-being, social functioning, vitality

Saravanakumar (2014) [71] Australia

N = 33

Mean age (SD): 83.8 (7.9) years

Yoga, 2 times a week, 30 min per session, 14 weeks

1. AC: Tai Chi

2. IC: Usual care

Physical function: Balance, fall incidence,

HRQoL: Pain, quality of life.

Tew (2017) [77] UK

N = 47

Mean age (SD): 74.8 (7.2) years

British Wheel of Yoga Gentle Years Yoga programme, 10 sessions during a 12-week period, 75 min. Home practice encouraged for 10–20 min on most days,12 weeks

1. IC: Wait-list control

Physical function: Body weight, BMI, waist circumference, lower limb strength, upper and lower body flexibility, balance, walking speed

HRQoL: Perceived mental health, quality of life

Tiedemann (2013) [73] Australia

N = 52

Mean age (SD): 68 years (7.1) years

Iyengar yoga, 2 session a week, 60 min. Home practice 2 days a week for 10–20 min, 12 weeks

1. IC: Control group given fall prevention education booklet

Physical function: Balance, lower limb strength, walking speed

HRQoL: Fear of falls

Vogler (2011) [39] Australia

N = 38

Mean age (SD): 73.21 (8.38) years

Iyengar yoga, 2 times per week, 90 min per session. Home practice 3 days per week for 15–20 min, 8 weeks

1. IC: Wait-list control group

Physical function: Muscle strength, range of motion of the upper extremity, hip flexion, hip extension, hip abduction, and trunk rotation

HRQoL: General health and well-being, perceived physical and mental health

Wang (2010) [65] USA

N = 18

Mean age (SD): 74.9 (8.4) years

Yoga group, 2 times per week, 60 min per session, 4 weeks

1. IC: Social group

Physical function: Balance, lower limb strength, lower body flexibility

HRQoL: Depression, morale, hope, social isolation