Table 1 Characteristics and findings of observational studies (n = 55) examining associations of workplace neighbourhood built environment attributes with physical activity/sedentary behaviour

Adams (2016) [49]

676 employed adults, UK

Recruited employees through five employers in England;

Cross-sectional

i. Walking routes (Route-related; P)

ii. Walking pavements (Route-related; P)

iii. Maintained pavements (Route-related; P)

iv. Safe to cross the road (Safety; P)

v. Dangerous traffic for walking (Safety; P)

vi. Crime rate (Safety; P)

vii. Routes are well lit (Safety; P)

viii. Free of litter/graffiti (Aesthetics; P)

ix. Walking routes are well signposted (Safety; P)

x. Public transport (Destination-related; P)

a. Time spent walking to and from work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. +

ii-a. +

iii-a. +

iv-a. N

v-a. N

vi-a. N

vii-a. N

viii-a. N

ix-a. N

x-a. +

Sex, age, car ownership, distance lived from work, free car parking at work, and organisation

Adams (2017) [55]

1544 employed adults, UK

Recruited employees through five employers in England;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Time spent walking to and from work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

Age, car ownership, free car parking at work, work-related PA, occupation, work pattern, perceived barriers, and psychosocial factors

Adlakha (2015) [44]

2015 employed adults, USA

A multistage sampling frame was used to randomly select adults form list-assisted telephone random-digit-dialing methods;

Cross-sectional

i. Healthy restaurants (Destination-related; P)

ii. Transit stop (Destination-related; P)

iii. Sidewalks (Route-related; P)

iv. Shops, stores, or markets (Destination-related; P)

v. Facilities to bicycle (Route-related; P)

vi. Recreation facilities (Destination-related; P)

vii. Crime rate (Safety; P)

viii. Dangerous traffic for pedestrian (Safety; P)

a. Work PA (Occupational PA; R)

b. Travel PA (Transport PA; R)

c. Leisure PA (Recreational PA; R)

d. Total PA (Total PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. +; i-c. +; i-d. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N; ii-c. N; ii-d. +

iii-a. N; iii-b. N; iii-c. N; iii-d. +

iv-a. N; iv-b. +; iv-c. N; iv-d. N

v-a. +; v-b. +; v-c. +; v-d. +

vi-a. N; vi-b. +; vi-c. +; vi-d. N

vii-a. –; vii-b. N; vii-c. N; vii-d. N

viii-a. N; viii-b. N; viii-c. N; viii-d. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, education, and income

Almeida (2014) [37]

6261 employed adults, USA

Recruited employees in working in medium-sized workplaces in Virginia and Colorado; Cross-sectional

i. Outdoor space (Composite index; O)

a. Moderate activity and strength-training activities (Total PA; R)

i-a. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, and education

Badland (2008) [18]

364 employed adults not working from home, New Zealand

A random sample selected from electric telephone white pages;

Cross-sectional

i. Residential density (Destination-related; O)

ii. Mixed land use (Destination-related; O)

iii. Street connectivity (Route-related; O)

iv. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Transport-related PA (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. +

iv-a. –

Sex, age, ethnicity, education, household income, and require automobile for work

Badland (2010) [22]

1188 employed adults not working from home, New Zealand

A random sample selected from electric telephone white pages; Cross-sectional

i. Car parking (Destination-related; P)

ii. Workplace located in an urban area (Destination-related; O)

iii. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Commuting to work by public transport (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –

ii-a. +

iii-a. N

Sex, age, sample weighting, residential accessibility to public transport, access to private automobile, current driving license, and require automobile for work

Barrington (2015) [45]

1007 employed adults, USA

Recruited employees working in the Seattle area through workplaces;

Longitudinal (follow-up: 2 years)

i. Intersections (Route-related; O)

ii. Residential units (Destination-related; O)

iii. Food destinations (Destination-related; O)

iv. Activity destinations (Destination-related; O)

a. Total free-time PA (Recreational PA; R)

b. Total walking (Total PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. +

iii-a. NR; iii-b. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, education, household income, manual occupation, intervention arm, worksite parcel size, and worksite internal environment variables, and worksite SES

Batista Ferrer (2018) [60]

654 employed adults, UK

A convenience sample of employees was recruited from 87 workplaces in urban areas in England and Wales;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

ii. Perceptions of the commuting environment (Composite index; P)

a. Incorporating PA during the commute (Transport PA; O)

b. Commuting to work by walking (Transport PA; O)

c. Commuting to work by public transport (Transport PA; O)

i-a. –; i-b. –; i-c. NR

ii-a. NR; ii-b. NR; ii-c. +

BMI and occupational activity (for a)

Workplace, access to car, and availability of workplace car parking (for b)

Age, access to car, workplace, availability of workplace car parking, and combines commute with caring responsibilities (for c)

Biswas (2018) [61]

60,650 employed adults, Canada

A multistage sampling frame was used to select households across Canada randomly;

Cross-sectional

i. Combination of all (Composite index; P)

ii. Combination of walking and playing place (Composite index; P)

iii. Combination of walking place, gym, fitness class, showers/change rooms, and health programs (Composite index; P)

iv. Combination of walking place, showers/change rooms, and health programs (Composite index; P)

v. Combination of walking place and showers/change rooms (Composite index; P)

a. Leisure-time PA (Recreational PA; R)

i-a. +

ii-a. +

iii-a. +

iv-a. +

v-a. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, marital status, immigrant, education, BMI, dietary intake, smoker status, alcohol consumption, perceived health and mental health, income, hours worked per week, working at home, job stress, physical demands of work, and season

Bjorkelund (2016) [50]

709 employed parents not working from home, Norway

Recruited employed parents of children in 6th and 7th graders at 27 randomly selected schools in two Norwegian counties;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Traffic safety (Safety; P)

a. Walking to work (Transport PA; R)

b. Cycling to work (Transport PA; R)

c. Driving to work (Transport SB; R)

i-a. –; i-b. –; i-c. +

ii-a. +; ii-b. +; ii-c. N

Sex, education, ethnicity, access to cars/bikes, and attitudes (for a and b)

Sex, education, ethnicity, access to cars/bikes, attitudes, and leisure-time PA (for c)

Bopp (2012) [29]

375 employed adults, USA

Recruited local employees working in Manhattan, Kansas, through community listservs, links from local websites, and fliers;

Cross-sectional

i. Travel time to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Lack of sidewalks (Route-related; P)

iii. Difficult terrain (Safety; P)

a. Walking to work (Transport PA; R)

b. Biking to work (Transport PA; R)

c. Driving to work (Transport SB; R)

i-a. –; i-b. N; i-c. +

ii-a. N; ii-b. N; ii-c. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N; iii-c. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, education, self-efficacy, ecological friendly attitude, employment level, occupation classification, employment length, perceptions of co-worker’s active, barriers, and motivations

Bopp (2013) [31]

1234 employed adults not working from home, USA

A convenience sample was recruited in medium-large cities in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. through email addresses directly or listserv, e-newsletter, or mass email;

Cross-sectional

i. Lack of bike lanes (Route-related; P)

ii. Lack of walking/biking paths (Route-related; P)

iii. Lack of sidewalks (Route-related; P)

iv. Traffic volume (Safety; P)

v. Crime level (Safety; P)

vi. Difficult terrain (Safety; P)

vii. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Work-related active commuting (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. N

iv-a. N

v-a. N

vi-a. N

vii-a. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, marital status, BMI, number of children, number of chronic disease, active commuting beliefs, perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, income, employment categories, employment length, number of cars in the household, social support, and residential environments

Bopp (2014) [38]

709 employed women not working from home, USA

A convenience sample was recruited in medium-large cities in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. through email addresses directly or listserv, e-newsletter, or mass email;

Cross-sectional

i. Lack of bike lanes (Route-related; P)

ii. Lack of walking/biking paths (Route-related; P)

iii. Lack of sidewalks (Route-related; P)

iv. Traffic volume (Safety; P)

v. Crime level (Safety; P)

vi. Difficult terrain (Safety; P)

vii. Travel time to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Active commuting to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. N

iv-a. N

v-a. N

vi-a. N

vii-a. N

Age, number of chronic diseases, perceived health status, self-efficacy, and perceived behavioral control

Bopp (2014) [39]

997 employed adults not working from home, USA

A convenience sample was recruited in medium-large cities in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. through email addresses directly or listserv, e-newsletter, or mass email;

Cross-sectional

i. Lack of bike lanes (Route-related; P)

ii. Lack of walking/biking paths (Route-related; P)

iii. Lack of sidewalks (Route-related; P)

iv. Traffic volume (Safety; P)

v. Crime level (Safety; P)

vi. Difficult terrain (Safety; P)

vii. Travel time to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Active commuting to and from work (Transport PA; R)

Older adults

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. N

iv-a. N

v-a. NR

vi-a. N

vii-a. –

Younger adults

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. N

iv-a. N

v-a. N

vi-a. N

vii-a. N

Sex, BMI, number of children, number of chronic diseases, number of cars in the household, self-efficacy, perceived behavioral control, perceived health status, behavioral beliefs, marital status, ethnicity, income, education, employment, social support, and residential environment

Buehler (2012) [30]

5091 employed adults, USA

A national survey to recruit a random sample of address list-based households; Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Biking to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –

Sex, age, ethnicity, household income, access to cars/bikes, residential population density, residential area, bikeway supply, season, and workplace policies

Carlson (2018) [62]

1085 employed adults not working from home, USA

Employees were selected randomly from households systematically selected to vary in land use patterns and income;

Cross-sectional

i. Land use mix (Destination-related; P)

ii. Street connectivity (Route-related; P)

iii. Walking/cycling facilities (Route-related; P)

iv. Aesthetics; (Aesthetics; P)

v. Traffic safety (Safety; P)

vi. Pedestrian safety (Safety; P)

vii. Crime safety (Safety; P)

a. Total active transport (Transport PA; R)

b. Active transport around work (Transport PA; R)

c. Active transport to/from work (Transport PA; R)

d. Total MVPA (Total PA; O)

i-a. +; i-b. +; i-c. +; i-d. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. +; ii-c. N; ii-d. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N; iii-c. +; iii-d. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N; iv-c. N; iv-d. N

v-a. N; v-b. +; v-c. +; v-d. N

vi-a. N; vi-b. +; vi-c. N; vi-d. +

vii-a. –; vii-b. –; vii-c. N; vii-d. +

Sex, age, education, ethnicity, vehicles per adult, marital status, people per household, time at address, city, and clustering of participants within block groups

Christiansen (2017) [56]

4764 employed adults, Norway

A national survey was randomly sampled among residents in each county in Norway;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Limited parking availability (Destination-related; P)

iii. Land use mix (Destination-related; O)

iv. Distance to the city centre (Destination-related; O)

a. Trip from home to work by car (Transport SB; R)

i-a. +

ii-a. –

iii-a. –

iv-a. +

Age, education, household income, and residential environment

Clark (2016) [51]

15,200 employed English adults, UK

A national survey of multistage sampling and the same individuals are re-interviewed in each wave;

Longitudinal (follow-up: 1 year)

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Change in the distance to home between wave 1 and wave 2 (Destination-related; P)

a. Car commuting to work (Transport SB; R)

b. Active commuting to work (Transport PA; R)

c. Commute mode switch from car to non-car (Transport PA; R)

d. Commute mode switch from non-car to car (Transport SB; R)

e. Commute mode switch from active to non-active (Transport SB; R)

f. Commute mode switch from non-active to active (Transport PA; R)

i-a. +; i-b. –; i-c. NR; i-d. NR; i-e. NR; i-f. NR

ii-a. NR; ii-b. NR; ii-c. –; ii-d.+; ii-e. +; ii-f. –

Sex, age, education, employment type, household income, attitudes, household car ownership, current driving license, and residential environment (for a-b)

Sex, age, education, employment type, household income, attitudes, household car ownership, current driving license, residential environment, and change in life events (for c-f)

Dalton (2013) [32]

1124 employed adults, UK

Recruited employees working in Cambridge through workplaces;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to the nearest bus stop (Destination-related; O)

ii. Distance to the nearest railway station (Destination-related; O)

iii. Number of bus stops (Destination-related; O)

iv. Number of destinations in working area (Destination-related; O)

v. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Public transport use to work (Transport PA; R)

b. Biking to work (Transport PA; R)

c. Walking to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. N; i-c. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N; ii-c. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N; iii-c. N

iv-a. +; iv-b. +; iv-c. N

v-a. N; v-b. –; v-c. –

Sex, age, limiting illness, deprivation, education, children in household, car ownership, type of work, residential environment, and car parking availability

de Geus (2008) [19]

343 employed Flemish adults not working from home, Belgium

Recruited employees via newsletter distributed in Flanders and contacted local cycle communities for having enough cyclists;

Cross-sectional

i. Traffic danger (Safety; P)

ii. Bicycle lanes (Route-related; P)

iii. Crime rate (Safety; P)

a. Cycling for transport (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. N

Education

Forsyth (2014) [40]

446 employed adults not working from home, USA

A randomly selected sample of a residential area at first, and all households were invited in the second stage;

Cross-sectional

i. Housing density (Destination-related; O)

ii. Access points (Destination-related; O)

iii. Percentage of commercial land use (Destination-related; O)

a. Travel PA (Transport PA; O)

b. Leisure PA (Recreational PA; O)

c. Total PA (Total PA; O)

i-a. +; i-b. N; i-c. +

ii-a. N; ii-b. N; ii-c. N

iii-a. +; iii-b. N; iii-c. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, education, marital status, housing tenure, household income, household size, PA at work, and neighbourhood clustering

Gehrke (2017) [57]

655 employed adults, USA

A national survey randomly sample household within Oregon and invite to participate through mail and telephone;

Cross-sectional

i. Activity density (Destination-related; O)

ii. Employment density (Destination-related; O)

iii. Population density (Destination-related; O)

iv. Retail density (Destination-related; O)

v. Urban living infrastructure density (Destination-related; O)

vi. Employment entropy (2 types of calculation) (Destination-related; O)

vii. Employment-population balance (3 types of calculation) (Destination-related; O)

viii. Block area (Destination-related; O)

ix. Block density (2 types of calculation) (Destination-related; O)

x. Connected node ratio (Route-related; O)

xi. Connectivity index (4 types of calculation) (Route-related; O)

xii. Cul-de-sac density (Route-related; O)

xiii. Intersection density (Route-related; O)

xiv. Intersection-Cul-de-sac ratio (Route-related; O)

xv. The proportion of local roads (Route-related; O)

xvi. The proportion of primary roads (Route-related; O)

xvii. The proportion of secondary roads (Route-related; O)

xviii. Street network density (Route-related; O)

a. Work-based walking (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. +

iv-a. N

v-a. N

vi-a. –, N

vii-a. N, N, N

viii-a. N

ix-a. +, N

x-a. N

xi-a. N, N, N, N

xii-a. N

xiii-a. N

xiv-a. N

xv-a. N

xvi-a. N

xvii-a. N

xviii-a. N

Sex, employment, and private vehicle ownership

Hamre (2014) [41]

4630 full-time employed adults, USA

A national survey to recruit a random sample of address list-based households;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Public transport use to work (Transport PA; R)

b. Walking to work (Transport PA; R)

c. Cycling to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. –; i-c. –

Sex, age, ethnicity, household income, access to cars/bikes, residential population density, residential area, transit access, bikeway supply, season, and worksite policies

Handy (2011) [25]

420 employed adults not working from home, USA

A random sample of residents for each of the six communities in the U.S.;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Dangerous for bicycling (Safety; P)

a. Commuting to work by bicycle (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –

ii-a. N

Sex, housing tenure, biking comfort, commuting beliefs and preference

Heinen (2013) [33]

4171 employed adults, Netherlands

Recruited employees of large organisations and residents of working age in Delft and Zwolle;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Cycling to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –

Sex, age, ethnicity, access to cars/scooters/bikes, purpose to use, sampling area, attitude, social support, facilities at work, and work policies

Karusisi (2014) [42]

4127 employed adults, France

Employees were recruited from a free medical check-up offered by National Health Insurance System;

Cross-sectional

i. Destinations density around the workplace (Destination-related; O)

a. Walking for transport (Transport PA; R)

i-a. +

Sex, age, marital status, education, occupation, homeownership, perceived financial strain, household income, and the level of human development of the country of birth

Li (2018) [15]

2843 employed adults, Japan

A prospective cohort study of local government workers in a central part of Japan;

Cross-sectional

i. Walkability (Composite index; O)

ii. Number of parks/green spaces (Destination-related; O)

iii. Number of sports facilities (Destination-related; O)

a. Habitual walking during leisure-time (Recreational PA; R)

b. Habitual exercise during leisure-time (Recreational PA; R)

Men

i-a. N; i-b. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N

Women

i-a. N; i-b. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N

Age, education, marital status, office worker, BMI, smoking status, alcohol consumption, sleeping hours, eating breakfast every day, depression, history of hypertension or diabetes, residential environment

Lucove (2007) [17]

987 employed adults, USA

A random sample selected from residential household phone numbers;

Cross-sectional

i. A safe place to walk outside work (Safety; P)

a. Any leisure-time PA (Recreational PA; R)

b. Work-break PA (Recreational PA; R)

c. Overall PA (Total PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. N; i-c. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, education, physical disability, and general health

Macdonald (2019) [64]

513 employed adults, UK

A random sample selected from the electoral roll within local authority;

Cross-sectional

i. Access to public PA facilities (Destination-related; O)

ii. Access to private PA facilities (Destination-related; O)

a. PA (Total PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. N

Sex, age, and income deprivation

Mackenbach (2016) [52]

482 employed adults, New Zealand

A national survey of multistage stratified sampling;

Cross-sectional

i. Population density (Destination-related; O)

ii. Housing density (Destination-related; O)

iii. Apartment density (Destination-related; O)

iv. Job accessibility (Destination-related; O)

v. Land use mix (Destination-related; O)

vi. Number of bus stops (Destination-related; O)

vii. Number of rail stations (Destination-related; O)

a. Active commuting to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. –

iii-a. N

iv-a. +

v-a. +

vi-a. N

vii-a. +

Sex, age, income, household type, season, day of the week, and trip distance

Marquet (2018) [63]

147 full-time employed women not working from home, USA

A convenience sample of women living in the U.S;

Cross-sectional

i. Walkability (Composite index; O)

ii. Walk Score (Composite index; O)

iii. Vegetation index (Aesthetics; O)

a. Total MVPA while at work (Occupational PA; O)

b. Total MVPA around the workplace (Occupational PA; O)

i-a. +; i-b. +

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. –; iii-b. –

Age, having children, income, work–home distance, amount of non-work PA

Marquet (2019) [14]

119 employed adults, USA

A multistage sampling frame was used to select adults form list-assisted telephone random-digit-dialing methods randomly;

Cross-sectional

i. Perceived walkability (Composite index; P)

ii. Walkability (Composite index; O)

iii. Walk Score (Composite index; O)

iv. Vegetation index (Aesthetics; O)

a. Active minutes at work (Occupational PA; O)

i-a. +

ii-a. N

iii-a. +

iv-a. N

Sex, BMI, income, work type, residential walkability, outside work PA

Merom (2008) [20]

794 employed adults not working from home, Australia

A random sample selected from electric telephone white pages; Longitudinal (follow-up: 1 month)

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Single-day active commuting to work (Transport PA; R)

b. Usual active commuting to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –; i-b. N

Age, education, marital status, BMI, self-efficacy, active commuting beliefs, and total PA

Panter (2011) [26]

1164 employed adults, UK

Recruited employees working in Cambridge through workplaces;

Cross-sectional

i. Public transport (Destination-related; P)

ii. Little traffic (Safety; P)

iii. Routes for walking (Route-related; P)

iv. Safe to cross the road (Safety; P)

v. Dangerous for cyclists (Safety; P)

vi. Routes for cycling (Route-related; P)

vii. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Walking to work (Transport PA; R)

b. Cycling to work (Transport PA; R)

With car availability in household

i-a. +; i-b. NR

ii-a. –; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. NR

iv-a. N; iv-b. N

v-a. NR; v-b. N

vi-a. NR; vi-b. +

vii-a. –; vii-b. NR

Without car availability in household

i-a. N; i-b. NR

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. NR

iv-a. N; iv-b. N

v-a. NR; v-b. N

vi-a. NR; vi-b. N

vii-a. –; vii-b. NR

Sex, current driving licence, and attitude of car use (for a)

Sex, education, weight status, limiting illness, number of children, car ownership, and attitude of car use (for b)

Panter (2011) [27]

1279 employed older adults, UK

A prospective cohort of adults who registered at 121 General Practices within Norwich and surrounding towns;

Cross-sectional

i. Route-length ratio (Route-related; O)

ii. Main or secondary road on the route (Route-related; O)

iii. Land use mix (Destination-related; O)

iv. Density of road traffic accidents (Safety; O)

v. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Active commuting to work (Transport PA; R)

Men

i-a. N

ii-a. NR

iii-a. NR

iv-a. N

v-a. –

Women

i-a. NR

ii-a. –

iii-a. NR

iv-a.NR

v-a. –

Age, social class, BMI, habit for walking or cycling for transport, and residential urban-rural status, and residential road density

Panter (2013) [34]

419 employed car commuters to work, UK

Recruited employees working in Cambridge through workplaces;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Supportive environment (Composite index; P)

a. Incorporating walking or cycling into car journeys to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N

ii-a. +

BMI, work type, deprivation, workplace car parking, attitude towards car, social norm, and habit strength for car use

Panter (2013) [35]

655 employed adults, UK

Recruited employees working in Cambridge through workplaces;

Longitudinal (follow-up: 1 year)

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Destinations within walking distance (Destination-related; O)

iii. Public transport (Destination-related; P)

iv. Little traffic (Safety; P)

v. Walking routes (Route-related; P)

vi. Safe to cross the road (Safety; P)

vii. Dangerous for cyclists (Safety; P)

viii. Cycling routes (Route-related; P)

a. Uptake of walking (Transport PA; R)

b. Uptake of cycling (Transport PA; R)

c. Uptake of alternatives to the car (Transport PA; R)

d. Maintenance of walking (Transport PA; R)

e. Maintenance of cycling (Transport PA; R)

f. Maintenance of alternatives to the car (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. N; i-c. N; i-d. N; i-e. N; i-f. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N; ii-c. N; ii-d. N; ii-e. N; ii-f. N

iii-a. +; iii-b. NR; iii-c. N; iii-d. N; iii-e. NR; iii-f. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N; iv-c. N; iv-d. N; iv-e. N; iv-f. N

v-a. N; v-b. NR; v-c. N; v-d. N; v-e. NR; v-f. N

vi-a. N; vi-b. N; vi-c. N; vi-d. N; vi-e. N; vi-f. N

vii-a. NR; vii-b. N; vii-c. N; vii-d. NR; vii-e. N; vii-f. N

viii-a. NR; viii-b. +; viii-c. +; viii-d. NR; viii-e. N; viii-f. N

Sex, age, weight status, education, number of children, housing tenure, home location, area-level deprivation, residential environment, attitude to use car, perceived behaviour control, social norm, habit strength, and workplace car parking

Panter (2014) [43]

655 employed adults, UK

Recruited employees working in Cambridge through workplaces;

Longitudinal (follow-up: 1 year)

i. Public transport (Destination-related; P)

ii. Little traffic (Safety; P)

iii. Walking routes (Route-related; P)

iv. Safe to cross the road (Safety; P)

v. Dangerous for cyclists (Safety; P)

vi. Cycling routes (Route-related; P)

a. Change in time spent walking on the commute (Transport PA; R)

b. Change in time spent cycling on the commute (Transport PA; R)

c. Change in percentage of car-only trips on the commute (Transport SB; R)

d. Uptake of walking on the commute (Transport PA; R)

e. Uptake of cycling on the commute (Transport PA; R)

f. Uptake of an alternative to the car on the commute (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. NR; i-c. N; i-d. N; i-e. NR; i-f. +

ii-a. N; ii-b. N; ii-c. N; ii-d. N; ii-e. N; ii-f. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. NR; iii-c. N; iii-d. N; iii-e. NR; iii-f. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N; iv-c. –; iv-d. N; iv-e. N; iv-f. N

v-a. NR; v-b. N; v-c. +; v-d. NR; v-e. N; v-f. –

vi-a. NR; vi-b. N; vi-c. N; vi-d. NR; vi-e. N; vi-f. N

Sex, age, education, season, housing tenure, household composition, access to cars/bikes, current driving licence, and limiting illness

Paul (2019) [65]

23,231 full-time employed adults working in the U.S. Department of the Interior, USA

Employees working in the U.S. Department of the Interior were emailed an invitation to participate and hyperlink to the survey;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

ii. Workplace located in a non-metro area (Destination-related; O)

a. Commuting to work by walking (Transport PA; R)

b. Commuting to work by cycling (Transport PA; R)

c. Commuting to work by non-active mode incorporating walking/cycling (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –; i-b. –; i-c. N

ii-a. +; ii-b. –; ii-c. –

Sex, age, and residential environment

Piatkowski (2015) [46]

2030 employed bicycling commuters, USA

Participants were drawn from individuals that sign-up to receive more information about “Bike to Work Day” (BTWD) online and solicited via email to participate;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Street link-to-node ratio (Route-related; O)

iii. Intersection density (Route-related; O)

iv. Safety and infrastructure (Composite index; P)

v. Relative convenience (Composite index; P)

a. Biking to work on BTWD (Transport PA; R)

b. Occasional commuter (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –; i-b. –;

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N

v-a. –; v-b. –

Sex, age, ethnicity, household size, education, household income, car availability, attitude and perception factors, and residential environment

Pritchard (2019) [66]

195 employed adults, Norway

A fixed sample which the same group of participants working in intra-city workplaces responded to both surveys;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Commuting to work by public transport (Transport SB; R)

b. Commuting to work by car/motorcycle (Transport SB; R)

i-a. +; i-b. +

Access to car/bicycle, having children, and paid parking around workplace

Prodaniuk (2004) [16]

897 employed adults, Canada

Employees working in three large organisations located in Western Canada were sent a research invitation within the internal mail system of the workplace;

Cross-sectional

i. Perceived Workplace Environment Scale (Composite index; P)

a. Workplace PA (Occupational PA; R)

b. Leisure-time PA (Recreational PA; R)

i-a. +; i-b. +

Workplace

Quinn (2017) [58]

111,808 employed adults, USA

A national survey of random sampling using a telephone survey of landline numbers;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

ii. Travel time to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Commuting to work by walking (Transport PA; R)

b. Commuting to work by cycling (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –; i-b. –

ii-a. –; ii-b. –

Sex, age, ethnicity, education, household income, and geographic location

Rafferty (2016) [53]

26 full-time office workers, UK

A convenience sample of employees at Glasgow Caledonian University recruited by email;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Number of steps (Total PA; O)

b. Total time spent in MVPA (Total PA; O)

c. Steps were taken during the commute (Transport PA; O)

d. Time spent in MVPA during the commute (Transport PA; O)

i-a. N; i-b. N; i-c. N; i-d. N

NA

Schoner (2015) [47]

614 employed adults, USA

Sample of residents from five corridors in the U.S.; Cross-sectional

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Participation in bicycle commuting to work (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –

Age, employment, residential preference, travel attitudes, and residential environment

Schwartz (2009) [21]

117 employed adults, USA

Convenience sample selected from 1 zone in Maryland;

Cross-sectional

i. Without cul-de-sacs (Route-related; P)

ii. Four-way intersections (Route-related; P)

iii. Sidewalks (Route-related; P)

iv. Bicycle or pedestrian trails (Route-related; P)

v. Trees along the streets (Aesthetics; P)

vi. Free from litter (Aesthetics; P)

vii. Traffic danger (Safety; P)

viii. Crosswalks and pedestrian signals (Safety; P)

a. Total number of walking trips taken from the workplace (Transport PA; O)

b. Steps were taken at or near work (Occupational PA; O)

c. Average weekday steps (Total PA; O)

i-a. +; i-b. N; i-c. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N; ii-c. N

iii-a. +; iii-b. N; iii-c. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N; iv-c. N

v-a. N; v-b. N; v-c. N

vi-a. +; vi-b. N; vi-c. N

vii-a. N; vii-b. N; vii-c. N

viii-a. +; viii-b. N; viii-c. N

NA

Troped (2010) [23]

87 employed adults, USA

A fixed follow-up sample limited to trail users;

Cross-sectional

i. Intersection density (Route-related; O)

ii. Land use mix (Destination-related; O)

iii. Residential population density (Destination-related; O)

iv. Housing unit density (Destination-related; O)

v. Vegetation index (Aesthetics; O)

a. MVPA within 1 km of the workplace (Occupational PA; O)

i-a. N

ii-a. N

iii-a. +

iv-a. +

v-a. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, and education

Umstattd (2011) [28]

173 university employees, USA

A convenience sample of university employees;

Cross-sectional

i. Worksite Supportive Environments for Active Living Surveys (Composite index; P)

a. MVPA (Total PA; R)

i-a. N

Sex, age, ethnicity, health status, position type, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and social support

Watts (2013) [36]

48,916 employed Canadian adults not working from home, Canada

A multistage sampling frame was used to select households across Canada randomly;

Cross-sectional

i. Access to PA amenities (Composite index; P)

a. Leisure-time PA (Recreational PA; R)

i-a. +

Sex, age, income, and education

Watts (2016) [54]

1538 employed young adults, USA

Employees were recruited from the third wave of a 10-year longitudinal study in young people who progressed from adolescence to young adulthood;

Cross-sectional

i. Distance to fitness facilities (Destination-related; P)

ii. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. MVPA (Total PA; R)

b. Time spent in walking or biking to get places (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. NR

ii-a. N; ii-b. –

Age, ethnicity, and socio-economic status

Wen (2010) [24]

888 employed parents not working from home, Australia

Employed parents of students studying in public primary schools located in the inner west of Sydney were recruited; Cross-sectional

i. Public transport (Destination-related; P)

ii. Car parking (Destination-related; P)

iii. Reputation for a safe place (Safety; P)

iv. Distance to home (Destination-related; P)

a. Travel to work by car (Transport SB; R)

i-a. –

ii-a. +

iii-a. N

iv-a. N

Clustering by the school and the within-school intraclass correlation for travel to work by car

Yang (2015) [48]

1332 employed adults not working from home, USA

Multistage stratified sampling using list-assisted telephone random-digit-dialling;

Cross-sectional

i. Healthy restaurants (Destination-related; P)

ii. Transit stop (Destination-related; P)

iii. Sidewalks (Route-related; P)

iv. Shops, stores, or markets (Destination-related; P)

v. Facilities to bicycle (Route-related; P)

vi. Recreation facilities (Destination-related; P)

vii. Crime rate (Safety; P)

viii. Dangerous traffic for pedestrian (Safety; P)

ix. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

a. Public transport use (Transport PA; R)

b. Active commuting (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N

v-a. N; v-b. N

vi-a. N; vi-b. +

vii-a. N; vii-b. N

viii-a. N; viii-b. N

ix-a. N; ix-b. –

Sex, age, BMI, household car ownership, and education (for a)

Sex, age, BMI, and household car ownership (for b)

Yang (2017) [59]

2757 employed adults, UK

Recruited employees registered at 121 General Practices within Norwich and surrounding towns;

Longitudinal (follow-up: 7 years)

i. Distance to home (Destination-related; O)

ii. Route length ratio (Route-related; O)

iii. Main road on the route (Route-related; O)

iv. Secondary road on route (Route-related; O)

v. Main or secondary road along route (Route-related; O)

vi. Number of streetlights along route (Safety; O)

vii. Land use mix (Destination-related; O)

viii. Density of road traffic accidents (Safety; O)

ix. Density of fatal and serious road traffic accidents (Safety; O)

a. Uptake of active commuting (Transport PA; R)

b. Maintenance of active commuting (Transport PA; R)

i-a. –; i-b. –

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N

v-a. –; v-b. –

vi-a. +; vi-b. NR

vii-a. N; vii-b. N

viii-a. N; viii-b. N

ix-a. N; ix-b. N

Sex, age, BMI, and residential environment

Zhang (2019) [67]

98 employed Chinese adults, China

A convenience sample recruited from two-night schools offered by two universities in Beijing and Shanghai, China;

Longitudinal (follow-up: 1 month)

i. Residential density (Destination-related; P)

ii. Land-use diversity (Destination-related; P)

iii. Land-use accessibility (Destination-related; P)

iv. Street connectivity (Route-related; P)

v. Aesthetics (Aesthetics; P)

vi. Walking infrastructure (Route-related; P)

vii. Traffic safety (Safety; P)

viii. Crime safety (Safety; P)

a. Transport-related cycling at time 1 (Transport PA; R)

b. Transport-related cycling at time 2 (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. N

ii-a. N; ii-b. N

iii-a. N; iii-b. N

iv-a. N; iv-b. N

v-a. N; v-b. N

vi-a. N; vi-b. N

vii-a. N; vii-b. N

viii-a. N; viii-b. N

NA

Zhang (2019) [68]

157 employed Chinese adults, China

A convenience sample recruited from two-night schools offered by two universities in Beijing and Shanghai, China;

Longitudinal (follow-up: 1 month)

i. Walkability (Composite index; P)

a. Transport-related walking at time 1 (Transport PA; R)

b. Transport-related walking at time 2 (Transport PA; R)

i-a. N; i-b. N

Sex, age, marital status, education, number of children, BMI, income level, and general health