Table 4 Convergent validity of accelerometer-based methods for toddlers, sorted by methodological study quality, quality of evidence (level of evidence), and study result rating
Study | Study populationa | Outcome(s) & Setting | Comparison measure(s) | Method ological study qualityb | Placement | Device-based methodc | Results | Study result ratingd | Quality of evidencee (level of evidence) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Convergent validity | Kwon et al. (2019) [49] | n = 21 Age = 25 ± 2.5 (13 to 35) months Sex = 50% girls | Activity type: running (forward from one place to another), walking (forward from one place to another), climbing up/down (the stairs/foam climber), crawling (moving forward on two hands and two knees), riding a ride on toy (sitting on toy, moving forward using two feet), standing (without lifting a foot), sitting (on the ground), stroller (sit on stroller/wagon pushed by adult), and being carried (by adult while adult is walking) Free-living (free play in commercial indoor playroom) | DVO using a developed coding scheme to score activity type by two independent raters | VG | Hip | AG-RF-VA/HA/DA/VM-5 | Best differentiating features: DA FFT SD (d' = 0.64), DA FFT max (d' = 0.61), HA FFT SD (d' = 0.47). Feature importance all 78 features < 0.1 (highest: SD of VM 0.039). Top 10 ranked features: basic quantiles (e.g., min, median, max) of single axis direct values and FFT values RF: accuracy = 89%, precision = 88%, recall = 89%, F-score = .88 58% of carried labels were correctly (SB) classified, whereas 89% of ambulation was correctly classified | + | Low (level 1) |
Costa et al. (2014) [46] | n = 20 Age = 2.99 ± 0.48 (2 to 3) years Sex = 60% girls | Activity intensity: Total time in SB, LPA, and MVPA Laboratory (semi-structured activity sessions) | DVO using CARS (modified) to score activity type and determine activity intensity (SB: stationary with no movement, and with movement of the limbs; LPA: slow/easy translocation; MVPA: translocation fast, and with moderate effort) by one rater (repeated after one month for random minute of each child) | VG | Right hip | AG-C-VM-5 | Total PA: CCC = .80, MD = 48.0 s*, LoA (-217.9 to 121.9) SB: CCC = .74, MD = 48.0 s*, LoA (-121.9 to 217.9) LPA: CCC = .34, MD = -163.5 s***, LoA (-343.0 to 16.0) MVPA: CCC = .40, MD = 117.8 s***, LoA (-51.4 to 286.9) | ± (SB + ; PA -) | Low (level 1) | |
AG-C-VA-5 | Total PA: CCC = .84, MD = 5.3 s, LoA (-171.1 to 181.6) SB: CCC = .77, MD = -5.3 s, LoA (-181.6 to 171.1) LPA: CCC = .45***, MD = -112.5 s, LoA (-320.5 to 95.5) MVPA: CCC = .42, MD = 115.5 s***, LoA (-49.3 to 280.3) | ± (SB + ; PA -) | ||||||||
AG-Pa-VA-15 | Total PA: CCC = .71, MD = 50.5 s, LoA (-183.0 to 284.0) SB: CCC = .75, MD = -22.0 s, LoA (-209.7 to 165.7) LPA: CCC = .38, MD = -115.3 s**, LoA (-397.27 to 166.8) MVPA: CCC = .30, MD = 165.8 s***, LoA (-71.2 to 402.73) | ± (SB + ; PA -) | ||||||||
AG-T12-VA-15 | Total PA: CCC = .85, MD = 15.3 s, LoA (-152.4 to 182.9) SB: CCC = .79, MD = -15.3 s, LoA (-182.9 to 152.4) LPA: CCC = .36, MD = -150.5 s***, LoA (-391.1 to 90.1) MVPA: CCC = .30, MD = 165.8 s***, LoA (-71.2 to 402.7) | ± (SB + ; PA -) | ||||||||
van Cauwenberghe et al. (2011) [45] | n = 31 Age = 20 ± 4 (12 to 30) months Sex = 45.2% girls | Activity intensity: SB, LPA and MVPA Free-living (out- & indoor free play at childcare) | DVO using OSRAC-P to score activity type and derive activity intensity (SB: stationary and motionless, and stationary with limb/trunk movement; LPA: slow, easy movement; MVPA: moderate, and fast movement) by two independent raters | VG | Right hip | AG-cts-VA-15 | mean rsp = .66*** epoch-by-epoch intensity level rsp = .52*** | - | Low (level 1) | |
AG-Pa-VA-15 | accuracy = 58.3% SB: AUC-ROC = .71, Se = 67.0%, Sp = 75.4% LPA: AUC-ROC = .62, Se = 60.0%, Sp = 63.2% MVPA: AUC-ROC = .57, Se = 21.5%, Sp = 91.3% | - (SB -; PA -) | ||||||||
AG-Si3-VA-15 | accuracy = 52.7% SB: AUC-ROC = .58, Se = 91.8%, Sp = 23.9% LPA: AUC-ROC = .52, Se = 14.6%, Sp = 89.0% MVPA: AUC-ROC = .53, Se = 8.9%, Sp = 97.1% | - (SB -; PA -) | ||||||||
AG-vC-VA-15 | accuracy = 52.2% SB: AUC-ROC = .56, Se = 94.4%, Sp = 17.2% LPA: AUC-ROC = .51, Se = 9.0%, Sp = 93.7% MVPA: AUC-ROC = .53, Se = 10.0%, Sp = 96.9% | - (SB -; PA -) | ||||||||
Trost et al. (2012) [44] | n = 18 Age = 2.3 ± 0.4 years Sex = 55.6% girls | Activity intensity: SB, LPA and MVPA Free-living (regularly scheduled play) | DVO using CARS (modified) to score activity type and determine activity intensity (SB: lying down or sitting; LPA: standing; MVPA: walking and running) by two raters | VG | Right hip | AG-T12-VA-15 | SB: MD = -7.6***, LoA (-17.6to 2.3) LPA: MD = 7.2***, LoA (-2.0 to 16.3) MVPA: MD = 0.5, LoA (-2.6 to 3.5) | ? | Low (level 1) | |
Pre-school cut-points: AG-Si/vC/Re/Pa/N-VA-15 | VG | Preschool and toddler cut-points overestimated SB*** and underestimated LPA***; Si** and vC ** underestimated MVPA; Pa (≥ 420) same trend as the toddler cut-point T12: MD = 0.5, 95% LoA (-2.5 to 3.5) | ? | Low (level 2) | ||||||
Albert et al. (2020) [48] | n = 22 Age = 1.5 ± 0.5 (1.1 to 2) years Sex = 54.6% girls | Activity type: Run/walk, crawl, climb, stand, sit, lie down, carried, and stroller as defined by Kwon et al. (2019)[49] Free-living (guided play) | DVO using a developed coding scheme to score activity type by three independent raters | A | Waist | AG-RF-HA/VA/DA-2 | accuracy = 63.8% RF + HMM: accuracy = 64.8% Run/walk: recall = 80.0%, precision = 88.2% Crawl: recall = 81.2%, precision = 68.3% Climb: recall = 56.0%, precision = 29.0% Stand: recall = 45.4%, precision = 49.2% Sit: recall = 66.6%, precision = 66.9% Lie down: recall = 61.7%, precision = 76.0% Carried: recall = 58.8%, precision = 43.5% Stroller: recall = 28.2%, precision = 41.0% Sit, stand and stroller collapsed: accuracy = 79.3% | - | Very low (level 1) | |
AG-SVM-HA/VA/DA-2 | accuracy = 58.6% SVM + HMM: accuracy = 60.1% | - | ||||||||
AG-LR-HA/VA/DA-2 | accuracy = 57.0% LR + HMM: accuracy = 59.1% | - | ||||||||
AG-J48-HA/VA/DA-2 | accuracy = 57.3% J48 + HMM: accuracy = 57.5% | - | ||||||||
AG-kNN-HA/VA/DA-2 | accuracy = 52.6% kNN + HMM: accuracy = 54.1% | - | ||||||||
Pulakka et al. (2013) [43] | Validation n = 40 Age = 16.9 ± 5.8 (16.0 to 18.3) months Sex = 60% girls Cross-validation n = 30 Age = 17.0 ± 0.6 (16 to 18.5) months Sex = 60% girls | Activity intensity: SB, LPA, MPA, and VPA Free-living (free play sessions | DVO using CPAF to score activity type and derive activity intensity (SB: stationary, no movement; LPA: stationary, limb movement, MPA: slow trunk movement; VPA: rapid trunk movement) by one rater (and 19.5% of the videos by a second rater) | D | Right hip | AG-Pul-VM-15 | Validation SB vs. LPA: AUC-ROC = .73, CI (.67 to .80) VPA vs. MPA: AUC-ROC = .67, CI (.56 to .78) SB vs LPA and MVPA: AUC-ROC = .98, CI (.97 to .99) LPA vs. MPA: AUC-ROC = .94, CI (.91 to .97) Cross-validation SB and LPA vs. MVPA: accuracy = 92%, Se = 94.2%, Sp = 90.9%, κ = .83 | + (SB + ; PA ±) | Very low (level 1) | |
AG-Pul-VA-15 | Validation SB vs. LPA: AUC-ROC = .62, CI (.56 to .67) VPA vs. MPA: AUC-ROC = .59, CI (.47 to .72) SB vs. LPA and MVPA: AUC-ROC = .95, CI (.93 to .96) LPA vs. MPA: AUC-ROC = . 90, CI (.87 to .94) Cross-validation SB and LPA vs. MVPA: accuracy = 84%, Se = 84.1%, Sp = 84.6%, κ = .67 | ± (SB + ; PA ±) | ||||||||
Hager et al. (2016) [42] | n = 24 Age = 24.5 ± 5.2 (14.7 to 35.5) months Sex = 41.7% girls | Activity intensity: SB, LPA, and MVPA Laboratory (structured activities) | DO using CARS to score activity type and derive activity intensity (SB: stationary with no movement; LPA: stationary with movement of the limbs, and slow/easy translocation; MVPA: translocation fast, and with moderate effort) by one rater | D | Left ankle | Ac-Ha-omni-30 | rsp = .75 SB: Se = 81.8%, Sp = 77.5%; LPA: Se = 61.7%, Sp = 84.7%; MVPA: Se = 85.7%, Sp = 88.4% | ± (SB ± ; PA +) | Very low (level 2) | |
Oftedal et al. (2014) [47] | n = 10 Age = 29 ± 6 months Sex = 50% girls | Activity intensity: SB and non-SB Laboratory (semi-structured activity sessions) | DVO using DO software Behavioral Evaluation Strategy and Taxonomy to score activity type and determine activity intensity (SB: lying/sitting with(out) limb movement, and standing still) by one rater | I | Waist | AG–O-VM-5 | Se = 82%, Sp = 83% bias = -5.1%, LoA (-27.5 to 16.1%) | SB: + | Very low (level 1) | |
AG–O-VA-5 | Se = 76%, Sp = 93%, bias = -17.3%, LoA (-44.3 to 8.3%)* | SB: ± | ||||||||
Nam & Park (2013) [50] | n = 10 Age = 22.4 ± 3.3 (16 to 29) months Sex = 50% girls | Activity type: Wiggling, rolling, standing still, standing up, sitting down, walking, toddling, crawling, climbing up/down, and stopping (precise definitions not indicated) Laboratory (simulated real home environment) | DVO to score activity type by one rater | I | Hip | mSCA-DT- VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 74.0% (39.5 to 97.2%) | ± | Very low (level 1) | |
mSCA-NB- VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 73.0% (28.0 to 90.9%) | - | ||||||||
mSCA-BN-VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 84.8% (57.8 to 98.9%) | + | ||||||||
mSCA-SVM-VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 86.2% (39.8 to 99.9%) | + | ||||||||
mSCA-kNN-VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 84.1% (67.8 to 94.6%) | + | ||||||||
mSCA-J48-VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 88.3% (71.7 to 98.7%) | + | ||||||||
mSCA-MLP-VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 84.8% (52.5 to 99.5%) | ± | ||||||||
mSCA-MLR-VA/HA/DA/VM-n.r | accuracy = 86.9% (72.1 to 98.7%) | + |