Table 3 Characteristics of the studies

Blake, H., et al. 2019 China [33]

Office workers (52.5% male; nr) n = 282

Cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Website educational materials, instructors’ feedback and videoclips demonstrating Quigong exercises twice per day (10 min). Each video, posted sequentially (i.e., one every two weeks), represented one module, such as neck, shoulder, or arms with three exercises that should be repeated three times. An icon on computer screen was scheduled to pop up twice a day to perform an exercise group led or ignore the prompt and participate individually guided by a video at a time of their preference. The intervention was based on the BCW approach.

CG: Control.

12 weeks

SP: Computer screen for popping up.

ID: Website educational materials and videos demonstration.

Workday SB (ad hoc survey)

SB: It increased in the CG (10.34 ± 1.04 h/week) and in the IG at a lower (5.68 ± 0.82 h/week) from BL to postintervention. The difference in changes (-4.66 h/week) was statistically significant.

Blake, H., et al. 2017 UK [34]

Office workers (86% female; 38.78 ± 10.25 years) n = 296

RCT

Information, and counselling

Both groups had access to a website containing educational materials. Four different types of activity-prompting personalized messages of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control or intention regarding PA were delivered via email (IG1) or via SMS (IG2) twice a week, at the same time, on the same day, each week. The messages were targeted, tailored and based on the TPB.

12 weeks

SP: Activity-prompting messages.

ID: Website educational materials.

Daily SB (GPAQ)

SB: Nonsignificant changes for the number of hours per day of SB over time, however, it was lower in both groups at 6 (IG1: 5.47 ± 3.07 and IG2: 5.45 ± 3.83 h/typical day) and 12 weeks (IG1: 5.75 ± 3 and 5.19 ± 3.10 h/typical day) than at BL (IG1: 6.14 ± 3.64 and IG2: 6.23 ± 3.84 h/typical day).

Bort-Roig, J., et al. 2020 Spain [29]

Office workers (82% female; 45 ± 9 years) n = 141

Cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: W@W-App included: a) real-time data and self-monitoring of occupational activity; b) visual and auditive prompts with an emoji of a chair that changes according to the time spent in sitting bouts; c) daily summary message by sending data from the app to a web server, which send the message, and weekly motivational messages; d) automated strategies and goals to sit less and move more at work.

CG: A partial W@W-App was installed only including the self-monitoring features.

13 weeks

PDC and ID: Mobile phone app for outcome self-monitoring.

CD, PDC and SP: Prompts based on a mobile phone app data.

ID: Automated strategies and goals. Weekly motivational messages.

ATF and PDC: Daily summary message via website.

Total, working, nonworking, workday and weekend SB (activPAL)

SB: At post intervention no total SB time changes were found. Differences pre – post intervention during weekday was -0.04 ± 1.62 h/day in the IG and -0.31 ± 1.65 h/day in the CG. Differences between groups were only identified during weekends for SB.

Carter, S.E., et al. 2020 UK [38]

Office workers (57.1% female; 42.5 ± 10 years) n = 18

Acceptability and feasibility crossover-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Educational e-booklet given once and computer-based software to prompt visually every 45 min to interrupt prolonged SB with brief walking activity, when it was activated, it displayed across the whole computer screen and could not be shut down, except during important occasions. The break duration was self-selected, and it was logged automatically in the software after the break. The prompt could be engaged or postponed for 15 min maximum, after that time, the software was automatically activated. Participants received a weekly email with activity feedback and motivation. The intervention was based on the habit formation theory.

CG: Control.

8 weeks

PDC, CD and SP: Computer software prompts, automatically activated after 15 min of postpone.

ID: Educational e-booklet. Weekly motivational email.

ATF and ID: Weekly email with feedback.

Workday, work, and weekend SB (activPAL)

SB: Large effects were observed in minutes of workday SB (-38.2 ± 72.9 min/8 h) and the percentage of work SB (-7.7 ± 15.0% work hrs) in favour of IG. Pre – post intervention within-group differences were 26.3 ± 43.7 min/8 h workday in the CG and -11.9 ± 43.2 min/8 h workday in the IG.

Danquah, I. H., et al. 2017 Denmark and Greenland [30]

Office workers (66% female; 46 ± 10 years) n = 317

Cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Social support (from ambassadors and management through appointments); environmental changes (sit-stand desk, hight meeting tables, and routes for walking meetings); informative session and materials (a 15-min lecture to increase knowledge of SB and health and communicated in a leaflet and via website); a workshop guided through four strategies (using sit-stand desk, breaking prolonged SB, having standing and walking meetings, and setting office-level common goals); and volunteer weekly emails and/or twice weekly text messages with regular updates and tips. The intervention was developed using social cognitive theory, Rogers’ diffusion of innovations theory and goal-setting theory.

CG: Control.

3 months

ID: Informative materials in a website. Volunteer weekly emails and weekly text messages.

Working, nonworking, and total SB (ActiGraph)

SB: Participants at the IG showed 71 min (-85 to -57) less SB per 8 h workday than CG after one month, at 3 months the difference was smaller. No differences between IG and CG were shown in nonwork SB. BL SB in the CG were 334 ± 5.1 min/8 h workday and in the IG, it was 345 ± 4.4 min/8 h workday. Postintervention SB in the CG were 352 ± 5.6 min/8 h workday and 292 ± 5.8 min/8 h workday in the IG.

De Cocker, K., et al. 2017 Belgium [31]

Office workers (68.5% female; 40.3 ± 9.1 years) n = 213

Cluster-RCT

Information, and counselling

IG: Web-based computer-tailored advice including tips on how to reduce and/or interrupt workplace sitting and personalized feedback messages on the frequency of interruptions, PA levels, SB were given after completing a questionnaire. Predefined decision rules were used to give tailored feedback messages. An action plan with personalized goals was developed for motivated users. The intervention includes constructs based on the TPB and Self-Regulation Theory.

CGs: Generic condition (i.e., nontailored advice on the importance of reducing and interrupting workplace SB), and control condition (i.e., wait-list control).

1 month

ID, DL and ATF: Web-based computed-tailored advice including tips and outcomes feedback based on questionnaire answers. Action plan to motivate participants.

Work SB (WSQ)

SB: Completing an action plan was successful in reducing self-reported workplace sitting from 332.8 ± 124.6 min/day to 282.5 ± 105.3 min/day, while this results there were not show in the CGs (353.3 ± 128.1 min/day in the generic condition and 284.6 ± 61.3 min/day in the control condition at preintervention and 351.8 ± 128.4 and 283.5 ± 60.4 min/day, respectively at postintervention).

Edwardson, C.L., et al. 2018 UK [24]

Office workers (79% female; 41.2 ± 11.1 years) n = 146

Cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Organisational support meeting with the chief executive, who send a regular e-newsletter and allowing time for intervention activities and encouraging involvement. Electric adjustable height desk or desk platform. 30-min education seminar about health consequences of SB and benefits of breaking it, leaflet containing the same information, action plan and goal setting booklet. Posters with educational or motivational messages every few months. Participants received outcomes feedback after each follow-up data collection and were encouraged to set a goal and to create an action plan. DARMA cushion, which sync data with a mobile phone app prompted by vibration every user defined time (e.g., every 30 or 45 min) and provided real-time feedback. 15-min face-to-face coaching sessions at month 1 and every 3 months to review action plans and give support. The intervention was grounded in several behaviour change theories: social cognitive theory, organisational development theory, habit theory, self-regulation theory, and relapse prevention theory. Additionally, it was implemented through the BCW and the associated COM-B approach.

CG: Health measures results were given.

12 months

PDC, CD and SP: DARMA cushion sync with an app to prompt.

ID and MOSSI: Regular e-newsletter from chief executive.

ATF: Real-time feedback.

Work and daily SB (activPAL)

SB: After 12 months work SB showed differences between groups -83.28 (-116.57 to -49.98) min/workday in favour of the IG. In addition, after 12 months significant differences between groups were found for 8-h workday: -41.29 (-59.88 to -22.69), mean change from baseline in the CG was 3.78 (-11.23 to 18.78) and -35.21 (-49.12 to -21.31) min/8 h workday in the IG.

Edwardson, C.L., et al. 2022 UK [25]

Office workers (72.4% female; 44.7 ± 10.5 years) n = 756

Cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG1: SWAL intervention: organisational strategies (i.e., briefing events about the importance of reducing and breaking up SB and its benefits, online/video brief awareness session about benefits of reducing SB, reviewing policies, and encouraging managers to review the layout of office space, and by managers modelling); environmental strategies (i.e., small-scale environmental restructuring, motivational and reminder signs around the office); Individual and group strategies (i.e., an online education session and set an individual goal and an active plan, SB self-monitoring through optional computer prompts, timers and mobile phone apps, encouragement from workplace champions through coaching, competitions and monthly motivational/educational emails).

IG 2: SWAL intervention and height adjustable desk, additionally information booklet, guidance, and recommendations.

The SWAL intervention was grounded in social cognitive theory, organisational development theory, habit theory, self-regulation theory and relapse prevention theory. Additionally, it includes a ranged of strategies which draw upon the principles of the BCW and the associated COM-B approach.

CG: Control.

12 months

ID: Online/video session. Online education session.

PDC and SP: Outcome self-monitoring through computer prompts, timer, or app.

Daily, workday, working, and nonworking SB (activPAL and OSPAQ adapted version)

SB: IG1 and IG2 sat for 22.2 (-38.8 to -5.7) min/day and 63.7 (-80.1 to -47.4) min/day less than the CG at 12 months. Changes in IG1 and IG2 compared to CG were favourable in SB during work hours at 12 months -13.4 (-29.0 to 2.2) min/work hours, and -57.9 (-73.3 to -42.5) min/work hours, respectively. Within-group differences from BL to follow-up were 2.2 ± 61.1 min/work hours in the CG, -12.8 ± 71 min/work hours in the IG1 and -56.4 ± 85.5 min/work hours in the IG2.

Engelen, L., et al. 2019 Australia [41]

Office workers (54.3% male; 9.5% 26–35 years) n = 46

Pilot quasi-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Welcome email with tips and guidelines to increase standing at work and short informative video. One-hour workshop in the first week about the risks of prolonged SB and benefits of breaking it, focus groups and brainstorming on how to sit less and move more and three site visits. Sit-stand desks with computer visual and audible prompts to change desk position, increasing the standing time every session. Feedback on the standing and sitting time were provided at the end of the day allowing self-monitor. Weekly emails with strategies and videos.

CG: control.

13 weeks

PDC, ATF and SP: Computer prompts and feedback on standing and sitting time.

ID: Email with tips and guidelines. Weekly emails with strategies and videos.

Workday, and work SB (ActivGraph)

SB: After 6 weeks SB during the workday decreased to 63% in the IG, and after 13 weeks this decrease was sustained, 80%. This equates to approximately 80 min less sitting over an 8-h workday. While in the CG the decrease of workday SB was 79% at 6 weeks and 80% at 13 weeks.

Invernizzi, P. L., et al. 2022 Italy [36]

Office workers (60% female; IG: 31.7 ± 8.2 years, CG: 32.0 ± 4.4 years) n = 45

RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Environmental changes including PA workstations (e.g., meeting rooms’ bike), movement during active pauses or during workflow were used three times a week, while twice a week participants worked in smart working. A mobile phone application connected to the workstations using QR codes permitting access to the description of each exercise, the suggested time and to the timer attached to the selected activity. After stop the activity the PA feedback was automatically shown. The app assigned an individual PA goal to be reached during the week. Benefits of PA and healthy lifestyles were explained. Twice a week the correct execution of the exercises (online and in person) was demonstrated. The intervention followed the self-determination theory.

CG: Three times a week worked in the usual office and twice in the smart working, as usual.

8 weeks

PDC, CD and ID: Mobile phone app connected to workstation, which provide exercise description.

ATF: Mobile phone app feedback.

ID: Exercise correct execution explanation.

Workday and weekend SB (Axivity Ax3 and IPAQ)

SB: No differences were found in both groups for self-reported and device-based SB measures. IPAQ measures showed working day SB at BL of 506.8 ± 166.1 Met in the IG and 488.1 ± 150.3 Met in the CG, and after intervention workday SB was 432.5 ± 188.0 Met in the IG and 450 ± 137.4 Met in the CG. Accelerometer data at BL were 2334.5 ± 321.4 in the CG and 2442.2 ± 252.6 in the IG, at 8 weeks data change to 2317.3 ± 294.7 in the CG and to 2343.9 ± 262.4 in the IG.

Mamede, A., et al. 2021 Netherlands [32]

Office workers (62.4% female; 46.25 ± 9.8 years) n = 256

Cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

Both groups received Fitbit accelerometers linked to an app. Default daily step count goal, and weekly personalized feedback via email on steps number.

IG: Virtual walking tour challenges during first 5 weeks (2 challenges lasting 2 weeks with 1 week in between them), including gamification, social support, and comparison features (i.e., team graded challenges with leader board, each one represented a charity, points and regards could win), biweekly newsletter via email. Physical nudges for the last 5 weeks. (i.e., table signs to motivate and remind participants to engage in PA and reduce SB)

CG: Basic version of the app. 10000 steps were the daily step goal during the 10 weeks.

10 weeks

PDC and CD: Fitbit accelerometer linked to an app.

ID, ATF and PDC: Weekly outcome feedback via email and gamification.

PDC: Virtual walking tour challenges.

MOSSI: Digital app challenges incorporating social support and social comparison features.

Work SB (2-item self-report measures)

SB: No association was found between the intervention condition or study phase and the time spent in SB. However, IG showed SB reductions during work time from BL to follow-up, 30.9 ± 10.7 and 30.0 ± 6.8 h/week, respectively, while CG increase SB from 29.1 ± 10.2 to 29.9 ± 10.7 h/week.

Martin, A., et al. 2017 UK [35]

Sedentary workers (100% male; 65% 30–49 years) n = 40

Feasibility and acceptability RCT

Multicomponent intervention

Both groups received SitFIT device, with real-time self-monitoring of daily step accumulation and SB. A colour-coded bar represented the percentage of daily time spent in SB (yellow) and upright time (green). Tactile feedback and vibration prompts after 15, 30 and 45 min of SB, with one, two or three vibrations, respectively. Feedback on periods of sitting uninterrupted. Informative booklet. Three incremental behavioural goals (i.e., increasing daily steps by 1500, reducing SB/increase upright time by 30 min, reducing percentage daily SB by 5%).

IG1: Feedback on step count, sedentary time, and percentage sedentary time.

IG2: Feedback on step count, upright time, and percentage sedentary time.

4 weeks

PDC, SP and ID: Real-time self-monitoring of outcomes and prompts.

ATF: Feedback.

Daily SB (activPAL)

SB: At 4 weeks, between-group difference from BL to 4 weeks was 15.2 (-81.6 to 112.0) min/day of SB, while at 12 weeks this difference was -64 (-160.7 to 32.8) min/day of SB. From BL to 4 weeks within-group differences in IG2 were -4.6 (-75.4 to 66.3) and in IG1 the difference was -11.1 (-81.3 to 59.1) min/day of SB.

Maylor, B. D., et al. 2018 UK [26]

Office workers (57% female; 43.47 ± 12.47 years) n = 90

Cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Educational and brainstorming sessions to identify strategies and about on the dangers of prolonged SB, which were then emailed. Participants were provided with a pedometer. Step challenges during the entire intervention period. Daily steps were entered onto a virtual leader board and spot prizes were provided. 20-min health check with the report and informative material. Prompts from computer software and/or phone app and visual support (i.e., poster prompts). Weekly telephone support (from week 2 to 8). Work environmental changes (e.g., relocation of printers).

CG: control.

8 weeks

DL: To enter outcome onto a virtual leader board.

CD: Pedometer supplemented with computer software prompts.

SP: Computer and/or phone app prompts.

MOSSI: Weekly telephone support and step challenges.

Daily and work SB (activPAL)

SB: There was no significant difference between IG and CG in SB change at work -15.7 (-38.0 to 6.5) min/shift. At 8-week IG reduced SB by 15.7 (-35.7 to 4.3) min/shift, while CG increase this time (0.9 (-20.6 to 22.5) min/shift). No significant differences were found in daily sitting time.

Morris, A. S., et al. 2020 UK [40]

Office workers (64% female; 39.8 ± 11.4 years) n = 56

Feasibility quasi-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Smartphone application for iOS devices. Two break frequencies, 30 min (IG1) or 60 min (IG2), the duration of break was not prescribed. The app notified the breakthrough sound and/or vibration and pop-up notification (“time to stand up”), the breaks were manually entered. The app allowed participants to self-monitor. The intervention was aligned with the intrapersonal level within the socioecological model.

CG: Smartphone application for android devices, to self-monitor the SB breaks. The application did not provide prompts, and the breaks were manually entered.

12 weeks

DL: Breaks manually entered.

SP and ID: Pop-up notifications and self-monitoring through an app.

Work SB (activPAL)

SB: Significant difference between groups, in favour of IG2 was observed for total worktime SB at 12 weeks, relative to CG -69.8 (-111.0 to -28.2) min/8 h workday. Relative to the CG, there were changes in worktime SB in IG1 at 12 weeks -37.0 (-78.0 to 4.2) min/8 h workday, although these were not statistically significant. At BL worktime SB was 329.4 ± 83.1 in the CG, 320.7 ± 110.5 in the IG1 and 345.2 ± 67.8 min/8 h workday in IG2, at 12 weeks this time changed to 369.5 ± 86 in the CG, to 326 ± 119.3 in the IG1 and to 302.4 ± 117.4 min/8 h workday in the IG2.

Nicolson, G. H., et al. 2021 Ireland [39]

Office workers (100% male; 42.9 ± 11 years) n = 21

Pilot feasibility crossover-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Education session (i.e., the dangers of SB and benefits of its reduction). Under desk pedal and Garmin tracker watch. Cycling time goals of 30–40 min per workday. Manual measurement of pedalling times using the Garmin watch facilitated self-monitoring, and immediate feedback on pedalling time on the Connect platform allowed social comparison, and friendly competition. Weekly email feedback. Visual alert (i.e., move bar) on the Garmin watch every 15 min of SB, which accumulated to provide sound and vibration after one hour of SB through, some PA were required to reset it. The intervention was developed applying the socio-ecological model.

CG: Control.

2 weeks

DL: Manual measurement of pedalling time.

PDC and SP: Garmin watch prompts every 15 min of SB.

CD: Garmin watch connected to a Connect platform.

ATF: Feedback on pedalling time.

ID, PDC, and MOSSI: Social comparison and friendly competition through a Connect platform.

Daily and work SB (activPAL)

SB: It was shown a decrease in workday SB from 379.3 ± 79.0 to 358.9 ± 96.9 min/workday in the IG compared to CG, thus, an indicative reduction of workplace SB of 20.4 min/workday. Total weekday SB was reduced by 45.7 min/day in the IG compared to the CG.

O'Dlan, C., et al. 2018 UK

Office workers (76% female; 39 ± 8.5 years) n = 19

Feasibility cluster-RCT

Information, and counselling

Both groups received an educational session (health risks associated with SB, potential benefits, and tips to break SB).

IG: Seventy brief, positively and with the organisation name framed messages were prompted on the screen, one of which was sent a half period in the middle of each hour through Microsoft Outlook.

CG: Control.

10 weeks

SP, ID, and MOSSI: Organisation signed prompt messages.

Daily and work SB (activPAL)

SB: Between group differences showed a lower proportion of time spent in SB during working hours in all the measures in favour of the IG. At BL total sitting work hours in the IG was 71.8 ± 22% and in the CG this time was 78.7 ± 11.8%, at 8 weeks this time changed to 69.4 ± 17.2% and 72.2 ± 15.0%, respectively.

Pereira, M., et al. 2020 USA [23]

Office workers (74.4% female; 44.6 ± 11.2 years) n = 630

RCT

Multicomponent intervention

Both groups received strategies based on the socio-ecological framework, including policy-level components (i.e., a leader and advocate, 5-min break every hour, and four quarterly support emails sent by the leader of employees,), environmental changes (i.e., walking routes, footrests, and other changes implemented by leader and advocate, such as challenges), individual and social components (i.e., weekly e-newsletter (n = 26) for 1st month and biweekly from 2nd month, coaching session to identify goals and strategies). All the intervention materials were manualized into Toolkit.

IG1: The target was to increase LPA time, replacing 30 min of sit time with movement.

IG2: Sit-stand workstation. The target was increasing standing and LPA time, achieving a 30:30-min sit to stand ratio.

12 months

ID: a total of 26 e-newsletters

ID and MOSSI: Support emails sent by the leader of employees.

Daily and work SB (activPAL)

SB: At 12 months between-group difference was -59.2 (74.6 to -42.8) min/8 h workday. From BL to 12 months, sitting at work was significantly decreased in IG2 compared to IG1: -52.5 (-62.9 to -42.9) min/8 h workday and 6.8 (-4.3 to 17.8) min/8 h workday, respectively.

Rollo, S., et al. 2020 Canada [37]

Office workers (91.7% female; nr) n = 60

RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: Phone counselling session (coping strategies identification focused on increasing break frequency to every 30–45 min, achieving a break duration of 2–4 min and creating action plans), information booklet and planning sheet. Text messages reminded to review and change action plans at the beginning of week 3 and 5 (3–4 action plans). Daily SB-related text messages, accompanied by tips, challenges, and reminders to reduce SB, intending as mini-booster interventions. Two difficulty gradual challenges each week to break up and reducing SB trying to reduce total SB at work by 2 h or greater. The intervention used the health action process approach.

CG: control.

6 weeks

ID and ATF: Text messages reminders and daily text messages about SB.

ID and MOSSI: Text messages including challenges.

Work SB (OSPAQ)

SB: Relative to BL SB 353.6 ± 80.7 min/workday decreases to 269.4 ± 115.8 min/workday at 6-week in the IG, which were significantly greater at all time points for the IG compared to those in the CG (BL: 358.8 ± 78.3 min/workday, 6-week: 355.8 ± 74.2 min/workday).

Thogersen-Ntoumani, C., et al. 2020 Australia [28]

Office workers (82.50% female; 21–66 ± 10.29 years) n = 97

Pilot feasibility cluster-RCT

Multicomponent intervention

IG: 1-h face-to-face workshop, motivational and educational training, and manual (i.e., strategies and behavioural change techniques). iOS app with motivation-supportive communication (i.e., feedback and weekly goal progress, reminders messages) and behavioural change techniques. Fitbit Zip to self-monitoring entering daily step count and recording walks on the app, and a step count goal were advised. Peer leader teams to join lunchtime walks, with a gradually progress to self-organize walks without peer-led team (i.e., 30-min walks twice per week and reduced the peer-led walks to once per week from weeks 7–10; walkers were encouraged to self-organize their own walks 3 times per week, for the last 6 weeks there were no peer-led group walks, walkers were encouraged to engage five self-organized walks per week).

CG: Fitbit Zip. To accumulate 7500 steps per day, brief talk and a leaflet.

16 weeks

CD: Fitbit Zip recording data outcomes on the app.

PDC, ID, ATF: Motivation-supportive communication through the app (i.e., feedback, self-monitoring, goal progress, and reminder messages).

Daily SB (activPAL)

SB: Daily SB decreased in the IG from 9.79 ± 1.18 to 9.43 ± 1.99 h/day at postintervention, while it increased slightly in the CG from 9.84 ± 1.47 at BL to 9.92 ± 1.41 h/day at postintervention.